'O «fi. j'.'S-* "'^Jff^v^ 1 FORTHE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY I'M III Birds of America El>iior-i.\-Chief 1. Gilbert Pearson President <>f ihf National Association of Audubijn Societies Consulting Editor John Burroughs Contributing Editors Edward H. Forbush State Ornithologist, Massachusetts William L. Finley Xaturalist, Author, and Lecturer Managing Editor George Gladden Herbert K. Job Economic Ornithologist L. Nelson Nichols Member Lmnaian Soeietj- Associate Editor J. Ellis Burdick Associate Member of American Ornithologists' Union Artists R. I, Brasher R. Bruce Horsfall Henry Thurston VOLUME ONE Thk University Society Inc. New York iq23 X /^ \ Copyright, 1917. by The University Society Inc. Manufactured in the U. S. A. COMPOSITtON, PRESSWORK, AND BINDING J. B. LYON COMPANY, ALBANY, ADVISORY BOARD Arthi-r a. Allen. Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Ornithology, Cornell University. Glover Morrill Allen, Ph.D., Secretan^ Boston Society of Natural History Morton John Elrod, Ph.D., Professor of Biology, University of Montana W.\lter Kendrick Fisher, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Zoology, Leland Stanford University G. Clyde Fisher, Ph.D., American Museum of Natural History Harry vS. Hath.wv.w, Naturalist, Rhode Island Lynds Jones, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Animal Ecologj', Obcrlin College Grin Gr.\nt Libbv, Ph.D., Secretary, State Historical Society, North Dakota Silas A. LoTTRior,];, Ph.M., Naturalist, Author, and Lecturer J. Walker McSpadden, Author and Lecturer Howard Taylor Middleton, Wild Life Photographer George Henry Perkins, Ph.D., State Geologist, Vermont Albert Porter, Editor and Lexicographer S. F. R.\THBUN, Naturalist, Washington Paul M. Rea, A.M., Director, Cleveland, Ohio, Museum of Natural History R. W. Shufeldt, M.D., Author and Wild Life Photographer Harriet B. Thornber, Secretary, Arizona Audubon Society W. Clyde Todd, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh R. W. Williams, LTnitcd States Department of Agriculture CONTENTS Preface .... Introduction Order of Diving Birds Grebes Loons .... ACKS, McrRES. .\XD PlFFINS Order of Long-wixged Swimmers Skiws .\nd J.\egers Gl'LLS ..... Terns ..... Skimmers .... Order of Tcbe-nosed Swim.mers Albatrosses .... Fulmars, Shearwaters, and Petre Order of Totipalmated vSwim.mers Tropic-birds Gannets .... Darters .... Cor.morants .... Pelicans .... Man-o'-war-birds . Order of La.mellirostral Swimmers Mergansers .... Ducks ..... Geese ..... Swans ..... Order of Lamellirostral Grallatore Order of Herons, Storks, Ibises, Etc Spoonbills, Ibises, and Storks Heron Family LS (Flaming^ OES) page vii xi I 1 lO i6 ,32 32 58 54 71 75 75 So 88 88 90 93 95 lOI 106 109 109 113 154 164 169 173 173 180 rv] VI BIRDS OF AMERICA Order of Marsh-dwellers Cranes and Courlans . Rails, Gallinules, and Coots Order of Shore Birds Phalaropes . . ■ ■ AvocETS and Stilts Snipes, Sandpipers, Etc. Plovers . ■ ■ • Surf-birds and Turnstones . Oyster-catchers PAGE 197 197 202 216 216 221 225 255 267 270 PREFACE HE actual and urgent need for this book is apparent to the large and steadily increasing number of persons who are intelligently interested in American ornithology. This need is due to the fact that in all the literature of that sub- ject there is no single work which presents a complete review of what is known to-day about American birds. The task of preparing a comprehensive account of the bird life of a con- tinent is far too great to be accomplished in a natural lifetime by any indi- vidual working alone; and until recently there has been no systematic cooperation between students of our native birds. It is inevitable, therefore, that continued study of the subject, aided by such cooperation, should have revealed many errors of commission and omission in the labors of Wilson, Audubon, Bona- parte, and the other earlier students of this difficult and complex science. Nevertheless, it is clear that the work of these men laid the foundation of American ornithology ; for their labors not only furnished much material of scientific value, but encouraged interest in and sympathy for birds, and thereby inspired further study of these beautiful and useful forms of animate life. The ornithological pioneers mentioned recorded not only technical descriptions of birds, but were at much pains to present observations calculated to give the reader ideas about bird personality. Later writers have confined themselves generally to one or the other of these aspects of bird life — or to regional ornithology'. . Doubtless the development of these two schools has been due to the realization of the enormousness of the task of presenting both technical descriptions, and accurate as well as readable characterizations of the hundreds of species which occur on this continent. In the case of the technical student, however, it discloses also the fact that one who is intent upon gathering purely " scientific " data about birds — that is, statistics and details concerning their size, color, distribution, nidification, and so on — is likely to overlook, or at least to pay little heed to habits or characteristics which have no classificatory value. Yet it is these very characteristics, rather than the purely scientific data, which make the strongest appeal to the imagination and the sympathies of the great majority of persons who are interested in birds. Indeed, it may be doubted whether any account of a bird, however accurate and detailed it is in its presentation of merely physical facts, is actually complete if it omits or curtails reference to traits which reveal the human and aesthetic sig- nificance of that bird's natural life. Surely, the cleverness and the fine courage which a mother bird displays in concealing and protecting her eggs, are as significant as are their mere number and color. It is the purpose of this work to present accurately and sympathetically both of these phases of bird life, that is, the physical and the moral. The utmost pains have been taken to present a precise description of the external physical appearance of each bird selected for separate treatment. The size of the bird may be considered the basic fact in its identifi- cation, and this is restricted (except in a few instances) to the average length, because that is the dimension most clearly discernible in the living bird. The color of the bird is even more important than its size, as a means of identification, and especial care has been taken in this particular. The most accurate and detailed descrip- tions of the coloration of American birds are those which are included in Robert Ridgway's [Vll] viii BIRDS OF AMERICA monumental work, The Birds of North and Middle America, of which seven parts have been issued by the United vStates National Museum. These descriptions, however, are expressed in terminology much of which is comprehensible only to the trained and essentially scientific ornithologist. Therefore, in order to employ this material in the present work, it became necessary to substitute common words for the technical terms; but in doing this great care was taken to reproduce the exact meaning of the original text. By this expedient there has been presented in plain language a vast amount of scientifically accurate descriptive material which, in its original form, would be comprehensible for the lay reader only by the constant use of an unabridged dictionary. Similar changes have been made, when they were necessary, in using Ridgway's text for the paragraphs on the distribution of species, and in the sections which characterize the generic groups. The descriptions of birds not included in Parts I to VII of The Birds of North and Middle America, have been written by R. I. Brasher. Special identification or "field" marks have been italicised. Although this precise and fairly complete physical description is essential for the pur- poses of scientific ornithology, and often is needed by the layman to supplement or cor- roborate his own observation, what Mr. Burroughs calls " the human significance of our feathered neighbors " is undoubtedly that which chiefly interests the very large and increas- ing army of bird lovers. This human significance is reflected in natural or acquired traits which, singly or combined, often give a bird a very definite personality. To the observer who learns to detect and understand these traits, the study of birds becomes far more than a mere science devoted to the collection and classification of physical facts. For once he has adopted this point of view, he begins to see something very like distinct character and per- sonality in the bird world; and observing the manifestations of such traces of individuality becomes to him infinitely more interesting and significant than the mere noting of the size, contour, and plumage peculiarities of a bird, or its occurrence here, there, or elsewhere at this or that time of the year. The characterizations, or life histories, of the species which receive separate treatment in the following pages, were prepared with especial regard for portraying their interesting and distinctive traits. In most instances this treatment reveals characteristics which serve to differentiate the species with much definiteness. It is, of course, true that individual dif- ferences may occur even within the species. For example, an individual bird may display what clearly seems to be unusual confidence in man, or uncommon cleverness in conceal- ing its nest or protecting its young. And it is frequently remarked that a certain bird may be a much more accomplished singer than are the others of his species in the same vicinity. Nevertheless there is a general similarity between the habits and temperament of birds of the same species, and therefore a description of these habits will be found to apply to the average individual bird of the species concerned. To the technical descriptive matter of especial interest to the systematic ornithologist, and the popular characterizations intended particularly for the non-scientific student of birds, has been added — wherever it is called for — much very important and interesting matter concerning the actual usefulness of birds. This subject of economic ornithology has been carefully investigated by the United States Bureau of Biological Survey, whose experts have gathered and compiled a great mass of statistics and other data concerning the food habits of birds, the object being to convey precise information as to which are the useful and which are the harmful species. It would be difficult to overstate the value of this work if its results were generally understood, for these researches demonstrate beyond peradventure the enormous usefulness of the birds in destroying insect pests which, but for this check of their natural rate of increase, would ruin every year many millions of dollars worth of crops, and threaten with defoliation and death many kinds of trees. The Bureau of Biological Survey endeavors to disseminate this information as widely as possible, and in order to assist in this good work the data gathered by its experts have been freely used in the following pages. This has been done not only because of the obvious Eggs of American Birds PLATE No. 1. Laughing Gull 2. Least Tern 3. Water-Turkey 4. Black Skimmer 5. Common Tern 6. Great Auk 7. Loon 8. Black Tern 9. Murre # t J 1 2 'V '% - / f% %• ;->ow ^ Drawhin bv tic-nry Thunton EGGS OF AMERICAN ISIRDS (Plate Nu!i]ber One) iiopy'Kln. l'>17. by The Lnicer,u, .s./...M\ /« PREFACE ix value and interest of the information thus conveyed, but because the reports and bulletins in which it is contained are likely within a few years to become unavailable through the exhaustion of the comparatively small supply printed. This, indeed, has already happened in the case of many of the most valuable bulletins, which are now unobtainable except in the larger public libraries and other repositories for such documents, and therefore have only very restricted circulation. Possessors of Birds of America will therefore have pemianent access to the best of this very valuable material. Finally, some explanation of the general form in which this work is presented may not come amiss in this connection. In their arrangement most ornithologies follow the evolu- tionary plan of proceeding from the lowest to the highest forms which, in the case of the birds, means from the Diving Birds which are considered by the scientists the lowest forms, to the Thrushes which are ranked as the highest. This is the order in which the birds are arranged in the Check-List of the American Ornithologists' Union, and the one which has been followed in these pages. The Check-List of the American Ornithologists' Union includes the names of about twelve hundred birds to which systematic ornithologists accord full specific or "sub-specific" rank. This sub-specific distinction is often based upon very inconsiderable plumage differ- ences of little or no interest or significance to the lay student of birds, while the character of the bird remains unchanged. In other words, a Robin is a Robin, whether he has white tips to the outer tail-feathers, as in the common Robin, or whether he lacks these spots, as in the Western Robin. Birds oj America discusses about one thousand birds. It practically covers every species and subspecies with which a student of lairds is likely to come in contact in North America. The publishers wish to thank Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson, who, in addition to his services as Editor-in-chief, has given freely of the photographs and material assembled by the National Association of Audubon Societies; Mr. Herbert K. Job, for his photographs and helpful sug- gestions; Mr. Edward H. Forbush, for his advice, and, through him, the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture for ornithological literature printed by them; Mr. William L. Finley and Mr. H. T. Bohlman for pictures supplied; Dr. Jonathan Dwight, Jr., for valuable sug- gestions and criticisms, and permission to quote from The Aiik\ Dr. R. W. Shufeldt for critical suggestions; Mr. C. Walter Short for his interest and practical advice on manu- facturing details; Mr. H.J. Vredenburgh for his careful supervision of the photo-engraving; Dr. Frank M. Chapman for permission to quote from his books; Mrs. Florence Merriam Bailey for permission to quote from her book, Handbook oj Western Birds of the United States; Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright, for permission to quote from her book Birdcraft; Mr. John Burroughs for permission to quote from his Works; Mr. C. William Beebe for photographs; Elizabeth Torrey and John W. Seabury for permission to quote from the Works of Bradford Torrey; Mr. Winthrop Parkhurst for permission to quote from the Works of H. E. Parkhurst; Mr. William Leon Dawson for permission to quote from Birds of Ohio, Birds of Washington, and Birds of California; Mrs. Olive Thorne Miller for permission to quote from The Children's Book of Birds and A Bird Lover in the West; Mr. F. Schuyler Mathews for quotations from his Field Book of Wild Birds and their Music; Mr. Ralph Hoffman for quotations from his Guide to the Birds of Nciv England and Eastern New York ; Mr. Walter H. Rich for permission to quote from his Feathered Game of the North- east; Mr. H. T. Middleton, Mr. Silas A. Lottridge, Mr. A. A. Allen, and all others who have so generously contributed of their best in photographic studies; the United Fruit Company for the use of paintings for reproduction on the title pages; and the Hercules Powder Co., for quotations from Game Farming for Profit and Pleasure. The following publishers have courteously granted these permissions: D. Appleton & Co. for quotations from the Works of Frank M. Chapman; Houghton Mifflin Co. for " To an Oriole " by Edgar A. Fawcett, quotations from The Children's Book of Birds and .4 Bird Lover in the West by Olive Thorne Miller, quotations from Handbook of Birds of the Western X BIRDS OF AMERICA United States by Florence Merriam Bailey, quotations from the Works of John Burroughs, quotations from the Works of Bradford Torrey, and quotations from Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New York by Ralph Hoffman; The John Lane Co. for quotations from Birds by Sea and Land by John Maclair Boarston; the Macmillan Co. for quota- tions from the Works of Mabel Osgood Wright; Elizabeth C. T. Miller for quotations from Birds oj Ohio by William Leon Dawson; G. P. Putnam's Sons for quotations from Field Book of Wild Birds and their Music by F. Schuyler Mathews; T. Y. Crowell Co., for quo- tation from Feathered Game of the Northeast by Walter H. Rich; and Charles Scribner's Sons for quotations from the Works of H. E. Parkhurst. To the United States Department of Agriculture and the members of the Biological vSurvey, to the New York State Museum and its director Dr. John M. Clarke, and to the American Museum of Natural History and its director Dr. Frederic A. Lucas and the members of its scientific staff are due special thanks for the material and pictures supplied by them. The careful workmanship of The J. B. Lyon Company of Albany, the Phoenix Engrav- ing Company, of New York City, and the Zeese-Wilkinson Company, of New York City, have made possible the mechanical perfection of these volumes. '"K-awsfr** .,■»■'. ■ ■'. — ' •* J'-' fc> ^r ■ ■ - ' ■ Courtesy ul II. T. Middleton WILD-LIFE PHOTOGRAPHER SNAPPING A PIED-EttLED GREBE IN A POND INTRODUCTION By T. Gilbert Pearson. B. S. HERE is to-day in the United States a very wide interest in the conservation of wild birds. This is manifested in the great interest which the pubHc shows in proposed legislative enactments for bird-protection, in the propagation of various game-birds on private and public properties, in the building and erection of innumerable boxes for the convenience of nesting birds, and in the constantly increasing financial support given to the National Associa- tion of Audubon Societies, and its many affiliated state and local bird protec- tion clubs throughout the country. A lively curiosity has spread among all classes of thinking people as to the names of the birds they see, what they feed on, and something of their coming and going, with the result that the demand for bird books has become very- great. No publisher of general literature would to-day deem his list of books adequate without one or more standard works on some phase of ornithology. Literary magazines con- stantly are publishing articles on the habits of l>irds, the migration of birds, the economic value of birds, the esthetic interest in bird life. There have been recorded in North America eight hundred distinct species of wild birds, and four hundred additional subspecies, or climatic varieties. This refers to the ter- ritory lying north of the Rio Grande — and not to Middle America, which includes Mexico and Central America. Naturally the individuals of some of these species are far more numerous than are others. For example, during historic times there probably never were more than a few thousand specimens of the California Vulture, while such common species as the Robin and the Mourning Dove run into the millions. Some birds are extremely rare, for example only one specimen of the Scaled Petrel has ever been taken in North America, and that was in Livingston county, New York, although the natural habitat of all Petrels is on the open seas. No one state contains all these various forms of bird-life. From the latest available information the following list shows the number of birds that have been recorded in the various states of the Union: Alabama, 275; Arizona, 371; Arkansas, 255; California, 541; Colorado, 403; Connect- icut, 334; Delaware, 229; District of Columbia, 293; Florida, 362; Idaho, 210; Illinois, 390; Indiana, 321; Iowa, 356; Kansas, 379; Kentucky, 228; Louisiana, 323; Maine, 327; Mary- land, 290; Massachusetts, 369; Michigan, 326; Minnesota, 304; Missouri, 383 ;' Nebraska, 418; Nevada, 250; New Hampshire, 283; New Jersey, 358; New Mexico, 314; New York, 412; North Carolina, 331; North Dakota, 338; Ohio, 330; Oregon, 328; Pennsylvania, 300; Rhode Island, 293; South Carolina, 337; Tennessee, 223; Texas, 546; Utah, 214; Vermont, 255; Virginia, 302; Washington, 372; West Virginia, 246; Wisconsin, 357; Wyoming, 288. For the remaining five states no list of birds has been published. Among the twelve hundred species and subspecies there are a considerable number that are exotic and are never seen in this country save on rare occasions when blown far by storms they wander to our shores. Among this class may be mentioned such species as the Scarlet Ibis from South America, the Mew Gull from northern Europe, the Giant Ful- mar of the southern oceans, and the Lapwing, Rook, and Wheatear from the old world. [xi] xii BIRDS OF AMERICA Birds vary greatly in the extent of their natural range and here again comparison may be made between the California Vulture and the Robin ; the one ranging in suitable localities from southern Florida to Alaska, the other being restricted to the California mountains. The bird of greatest range in the world is the Arctic Tern, which in the northern summer haunts the North American coastline from Maine to the Arctic seas, and during our winter feeds along the shores of the Antarctic continent. Most birds have a much more restricted range and but few are found in every state. Some species occur only along the Pacific coast, others only in the northeastern States and Canada, and still others are confined to the south Atlantic and Gulf States. The earlier legislative enactments for bird-protection in the United States dealt almost entirely with game-birds. So persistently was this class of birds shot, trapped, and netted after the coming of the Europeans, that it soon became apparent that restrictive measures must be taken if some of the more popular game-birds were to be preserved for posterity. These laws at first were quite amateurish, but as a result of experience they later were estab- lished along certain definite lines, viz., first, those setting aside certain seasons of the year when the birds could be killed, the idea of this being to afford them protection during the period of incubation and caring for the young; second, forbidding certain methods of capture as for example " fire lighting " at night, netting, and shooting into flocks with large swivel guns; and, third, limiting the number that might be taken in a day or season. It was found that the ordinary civil officers could not, or would not, enforce the game laws satisfactorily, hence there soon developed a plan of employing special state officers known as game wardens whose specific duty it was to see that the laws protecting birds and game were observed. In order to raise funds for the employing of these officers and also to increase the restrictions on gunners the custom arose of requiring hunters' license fees of all who desired to kill these State assets. These fees run from one dollar to three dollars for a resident of the State and from five to seventy-five dollars for a non-resident of the State. This hunting license fund in some of the larger States at times amounts to $200,000 or more annually. It was not until about the middle eighties that public attention was drawn strongly to the desirability of preserving that group of birds usually referred to as " non-game birds." By a campaign of education the Audubon Society, first formed at that time, began to edu- cate the public sentiment on the subject with the result that the law usually known as the Audubon Law and which has for its purpose the protection of this large group of birds, has been enacted in the Legislatures of all the States with the exception of six. By the enact- ment of the Federal Migratory Bird Law on March 4, 1913, a provision protecting these birds was created which covers the United States. On December 10, 1916, a treaty between this country and Great Britain was ratified, which extends protection to non-game birds in the Dominion of Canada. The best place to study wild birds is on a Bird Reservation for here the birds have greatly lost their fear of man, and primitive conditions, so far as the birds are concerned, have thus largely been restored. In one of the protected sea-bird colonies of North Carolina I have photographed Royal Terns standing unafraid on the sands not twelve feet distant. They had become so accustomed to the warden in charge that they had regained their confidence in man. At Lake Worth I saw a man feed Scaup Ducks that swam to within two yards of his boat. In thousands of door-yards throughout the country wild birds, won by kind treatment, now take their food or drink within a few feet of their human protec- tors. This is because the door-yards have been made little bird reservations. I have a number of friends who regularly feed Chickadees in winter as the birds perch on their outstretched hands. It is astonishing how quickly wild creatures respond to a little reasonable treat- ment, as may readily be learned by any householder who will try the experiment. With a little patience any teacher may instruct her pupils in the simple art of making the birds feel at home in the vicinity of the school-house. Eggs of American Birds PLATE No. 2 1. Whip-poor-will 2. Nighthawk 3. Yellow-billed Cuckoo 4. Belted Kingfisher 5. Least Bittern 6. Sora 7. Bob-white 8. Red Phalarope 9. Wilson's Phalarope 10. Spotted Sandpiper 11. Wilsons Plover 12. California Quail 13. Semipalmated Sandpiper 14. Killdeer 15. Florida Gallinule 16. Sparrow Hawk 17. Ruffed Grouse 18. Wilson's Snipe 19. Woodcock 20. Sharp-shinned Hawk 21. White Ibis 22. Little Blue Heron 23. Clapper Rail 24. White-faced Glossy Ibis / • f^cT ''. .^W- \ ... , *. * 12 ,t-' 17 •• •» ."* J*/^ 22 from .1 Drawing by Henry Thurston m 8 13 <.*rr>* #1 18 fi^^X ■ ^ If/,* ■- • ■ 9 10 19 -; . ' n* N 23 W "5^ 24 Crieyriilit. IVl?. by T b <■ l,,,: cr.i.y Smuiy. /« EGGS OF AMERICAN I'.IRDS (Plate Number Tvs-o) IXTRODUCTIUX xiu There are some kinds of birds that, as far as we know their histon,-, have always built their nests in the holes of trees. Woodpeckers have strong chisel-shaped bills and are able to excavate nesting cavities, but there are others that do not possess such powers. These must depend on finding the abandoned hole of some Woodpecker, or the natural hollow of some tree. It not infrequently happens that such birds are obliged to search far and wide for a hole in which they can make their abode. It is the custom of those who take care of lawns and city parks to chop away and remove all dead limbs or trees that may die. As there are ver>- few Woodpeckers that ever attempt to dig a nesting hole in living trees, such work of the axeman means that when the season comes for the rearing of young, all mated Wood- peckers must move on to where more natural conditions await them. This results in an abnormal reduction of the number of holes for the use of the weaker billed hole-nesting species which must now seek for the few available hollows and knot-holes. But even these places are often taken away from them for along comes the tree doctor, who on the pretext of aiding to presen.^e the trees, fills up the natural openings with cement and the birds are literally left out in the cold. It is plain to see, therefore, that one reason why many birds do not remain in our towns through the spring months, is due to the absence of places where they may lay their eggs and rear their young. To overcome this difficulty the Audubon Society several years ago began to advocate the building and erection of suitable nesting boxes, and to-day the practice is gaining wide usage. More people ever>^ year are putting such boxes upon poles or nailing them to trees about their homes, and city authorities in some instances now include bird-boxes among the annual expenditures in the care of their parks. Some of the boxes that may be purchased are very ornate and make beautiful additions even to the most carefully kept estates. One may buy these boxes at prices varying from thirty- five cents to thirty-five dollars each. It is not necessary, however, to buy the boxes to be put up for birds. Equally useful ones may readily be made in the Manual Training Department of the school, or in the basement or wood-shed at home. If one does not know how to begin one may buy a bird-box, or write to the Audubon Society for a free circular of directions, and construct similar ones for him- self. People sometimes make the mistake of thinking it is absolutely necessary- that such boxes should conform strictly to certain set dimensions. Remember, however, that the cavities in trees and stumps which the birds naturally use, show a wide variety of size, shape and location. A large, commodious, many-roomed, and well painted Martin house, makes a pleasing appearance on the landscape, but it may not be attractive to the Martins. As a boy I built up a colony of more than fifteen pairs of these birds by the simple device of rudely partitioning a couple of soap boxes. The openings of the different rooms were neither uniform in size or shape, but were such as an untrained boy would cut out with a hatchet. A dozen Photo by .\. A. Allen HOUSE WREN Building its nest in a nesting box on a porch xiv BIRDS OF AMERICA gourds each with a large hole in the side completed the tenements for this well contented Martin community. There are a few simple rules on the making and placing of bird-boxes that should be observed. 1. In the case of all nest-boxes, except those designed for Martins, the opening should be several inches above the floor, thus conforming to the general plan of the Woodpecker's hole, or the natural cavity in a tree. 2. As a rule nest-boxes should be erected on poles from ten to thirty feet from the ground, or fastened to the sides of trees where limbs do not interfere with the outlook. The main exception to this rule is in the case of Wrens, where the boxes or gourds intended for their use may be nailed or wired in fruit trees or about out-buildings. 3. Martin houses should be erected on poles at least twenty feet high and placed well out in the open, not less than one hundred feet from buildings or large trees. 4. All boxes should be taken down after the nesting season and the old nesting material removed. Much may be done to bring the birds about the home by placing food where they may readily get it. The majority of land-birds that pass the winter in Canada or the colder parts of the United States, feed mainly on seeds. Cracked corn, wheat, rice, sunflower seed, and bird-seed which may be purchased readily in any town, are therefore exceedingly attrac- tive articles of diet. Bread crumbs are enjoyed by many species. Food should not be thrown out on the snow unless there is a crust or the snow has been well trampled down. Usually it should be placed on boards. Various feeding devices have been made of such character as to prevent the food being covered or washed away by snow or rain. Suet tied to the limbs of trees on the lawn will give comfort and nourishment to many a Chickadee, Nuthatch, and Downy Woodpecker. To make a bird sanctuary, therefore, nesting sites and food are among the first requirements. There appears to be no reason why town and city parks everywhere should not be made into places of great attraction for the wild birds. At Meriden, New Hampshire, there is a tract of land containing thirty-two acres of field and woods, which is dedicated to the comfort and happiness of wild birds. It is owned by the Meriden Bird Club. The entire community takes an interest in its maintenance, and here birds are fed and nesting places provided. It is in the widest sense a " community sanctuary." There are now a number of these cooperative bird-havens established and cared for in much the same manner. One is in Cincinnati, another in Ithaca, New York, and still another at Greenwich, Connecticut. The best equipped of this class of community bird-refuges, as distinguished from private estates, or Audubon Society, State, or Federal bird-reservations, is Birdcraft Sanctuary, located in Fairfield, Connecticut. This tract of ten acres was presented to the Connecticut Audubon Society in June, 19 14. A cat-proof fence surrounds the entire place. That it may not look aggressive, it is set well inside the picturesque old wall. Stone gate-posts and a rustic gate greet the visitor at the entrance on the highway. There is a bungalow for the caretaker and a tool and workshop of corresponding style. Several rustic shelters and many seats are about. The various springs on the place were assembled into a pond. Trails were cut through the brush and the turf grass, and a charming bit of old orchard on the hill-top, was restored for the benefit of worm-pulling Robins. Stone basins were constructed for bird-baths, houses are put up for all sorts of birds, from Wren boxes, von Berlepsch model, Flicker boxes and Owl boxes, to a Martin hotel; and lastly, the natural growth has been supplemented by planting pines, spruce, and hemlocks for windbreakers, and mountain ash, mulberries, sweet cherries, flowering shrubs, and vines for berries. Not only were all these things done, but there has been built and equipped a small museum of Natural History, which for good taste and usefulness one would need to travel far to find its equal. The interest in this subject is growing every day, in fact, America is to-day planning new homes for her birds — homes where they may live with unrestricted freedom, where INTRODUCTION XV food and lodging in abundance, and of the best, will be supplied, where bathing-pools will be at their service, where blossoming trees will welcome them in the spring, and fields of grain in the fall, quiet places where these privileges will bring to the birds much joy and con- tentment. Throughout this country there should be a concerted effort to convert the ceme- teries, city parks, and estates into sanctuaries for the bird-life of this land. With a little trouble, seasoned with good judgment, one may soon have birds feeding on a tray within a few yards of the window or even on the window sill. Abundant oppor- tunity is thus given for photographing birds under the best possible conditions for successful results. With every possible convenience at hand one may get better pictures of birds on a feeding tray than one could ever hope to do in a state of wild Nature. Photographing birds then is an excellent occupation, for the merest novice may hope for success. It is a good thing to do this too from the standpoint of the bird's well being. I have never known a bird j^hotographer who was not a bird lover; for to know the birds is to protect them. y^i^iJ^ii*^>^fe ^.■J^^^^^\^]^,i J|^ -«il* Photograph by W. L. Fmluy H. T. BOHLMAN PHOTOGRAPHING A COLONY OF WHITE PELICANS AND CORMORANTS IN TULE LAKE, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA Present operations in the United States, in the line of bird-reservations, grew out of the distinct need of preserving certain classes of birds from becoming e.\tinct. The birds that we may distinctly call farm-land birds, such as the native Sparrows, the Warblers, Wrens, Orioles, and many other common insectivorous birds, have increased in America since the advent of white man. It is chiefly the birds that could be commercialized, either for their flesh, or their feathers that have suffered great diminution in numbers in North America as a result of man's activ- ities. An important effort to preserve this class of birds is now being carried on in the United States by the establishment of bird-reservations. Reservation work began in 1Q02, under the National Association of Audubon Societies. This is the best organized and most liberally financed bird protective organization in the world, and has been in active operation for many years. One of the States that early adopted the Audubon Law was Florida. On the Atlantic coast of that state, in Indian River, there is an island of about four acres, where two thousand XVI BIRDS OF AMERICA Brown Pelicans have been coming, from the time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary, to lay their eggs and rear their young. About the time this law was enacted long quills became very popular in the millinery trade. Some of us found that the millinery stores in large cities were selling feathers taken from the Bush Turkey, the Albatross, the Brown Pelican, and also from the old Turkey Buzzard of the South. Certain people tried to secure the repeal of the Florida law, so that the Pelicans might be killed for their feathers. This caused the question to rise: Would it be possible to get the government of the United States to take hold of that island in some way? A man who kills a bird would rather be haled before a local magistrate where the jury probably would be composed of friends and neighbors, who themselves had killed birds. In such a case it was a simple matter ^ m^ Photo bv H. L, Uilla CVjurle^y ot Nat. Aiiiu. Aud. Soc, PARK RANGER AND CAMP ROBBER (GRAY JAYJ Mount Ranier in background to leave the plough for a day and stand trial. But in a Federal court it is a different proposi- tion. Here a man may have to travel half way across the state to attend court, and must appear before a jury composed of strangers — a situation to be dreaded. There did not seem to be any way whereby this Federal control could be secured until the matter was finally taken up with President Roosevelt, who said, " If the land office will recommend that this land is not good for agricultural purposes we will make it a bird-reserve under the care of the Department of Agriculture, provided the Audubon Society will agree to hire a man to act as guardian on the island." In a very short time the matter was arranged, and the President declared the island a bird-sanctuary in perpetuity — a breeding place for wild birds for all time. He took a short cut in doing this for there was no s]3ecific law giving the executive such authority. Along the coast of Florida were found nine other small islands suitable for this purpose, and Mr. Roosevelt made them all Federal bird-reservations. Later inquiry was made about places suitable for sanctuaries for other birds, for, bear in mind, many large birds over extended areas were threatened with extirpation to supply INTRODUCTION xvii iiA^k!* "V.'X 1 ^^*»'' *^ ■ the demand for the market. Sea Gulls along the coast, Terns, Grebes, Ducks, Geese, and others in the West were in imminent danger from this cause. vSo the National Association of Audubon Societies began to look for breeding places of Ducks and other birds in the West. Examination was made in various parts of the country and many more bird reservations were the result. When President Roosevelt went out of office, we had thirty-eight bird reserves. President Taft took an interest in the subject and also segregated quite a number. One of the largest of these bird-sanctuaries is the delta of the Yukon, which is as large as the State of Connecticut. One bird reserve was created in the western group of the Hawaiian Islands, including the Laysan Island. This, by the way, was raided in the summer of 1915 by Japanese feather hunters. The Pribilof Islands were also made a reserve, as well as the Aleutian Chain. There are to-day seventy United States bird-reserves in all. At first the Government made no appropriation to protect and guard these birds. Therefore, it became the duty of the Audubon Society to ask for aid from its members and friends who were willing to give money for an idea — people willing to provide funds to protect Egrets in Florida or Cormorants and Gulls on the Three-Arch Rocks in Oregon, whether or not they could ever hope to see personally the sanctuaries. After the lapse of si.K years, the Government made a small grant for the purpose, although, to-day, the Audubon Society owns and operates the patrol launches on the Government reserves, and still helps to pay the salaries of some of the wardens. The Government is appropriating more money each year to this work, and the gentlemen of the Biological Survey who have the work in charge are exercising every means at their command to success- fully protect the birds. President Wilson made the Panama Canal Zone a bird-reserve in 1913. There are many bird-reserves which the Audubon Society is protecting that are not on Governinent territory. These are cared for by the Society's paid agents. The islands along the coast of Maine are great breeding places for sea-fowl of various kinds. There are forty-two islands where they nest, and there are sixteen Audubon wardens in service there in summer. The Society also has wardens guarding islands along the coasts of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and North Carolina. There are still others in Florida and Louisiana. About sixty important colonies of water-birds are pnrtected by the Audubon Society in the southern states. It has been able to buy some and to lease others. In some cases merely the consent of the owners is obtained. The result is that certain water-birds on the Atlantic coast, such as Herring Gulls and several species of Terns, have come back in great numbers. \'oL. 1 — 2 ■ '.'I, " T. GILBERT PEARSON PHOTOGRAPHJNG YOUNG HERONS In the marshes of Klamath Lake, Oregon xviii BIRDS OF AMERICA The Audubon Society is trying to guard the Egrets in the South and we know of about twenty thousand of these birds left in the United States. Two of the Society's agents, while on guard, have been shot and killed by plume-hunters, and the colonies have been raided and the plumes sent to New York. In North America the great nursery for wild Ducks and Geese is the region between the Great Lakes and Hudson Bay on the east and the Rocky Mountains on the west. There are three great flights of Ducks and Geese in autumn from that section of the country. Those heading for the Atlantic Seaboard chiefly cross the States diagonally, reaching the Atlantic Coast about Maryland. In a reactionary migratory movement, many of them go back along the coast at least to Long Island and swing back and forth, according to weather conditions. The other end of this movement goes down the coast. There is also a great flight down the Mississippi Valley. Under the migratory bird laws, the Mississippi, between Memphis and St. Paul, is a reservation. In the sunken ground of Arkansas there are two large bird-reserves, and on one of these many Ducks find a refuge. This was a famous place for market hunters in days gone by. More than 300,000 Ducks were taken there in one year. Another larger series of bird-reservations is situated in the State of Louisiana. These include 234,000 acres of marsh-land, where numbers of Ducks and Geese now find a safe refuge. These reserva- tions were made by the private purchase of Charles Willis Ward, E. A. Mcllhenny, Mrs. Russell Sage, and the Rockefeller Foundation. This widespread interest in birds both on the part of the Government and private indi- viduals has had happy results. Not only are our birds protected, but unusual opportunity has been given to study them. The advance in field work, coupled with the constant improvement of photography, has obtained results little short of astounding. When the present work on Birds of America was projected, some months ago, we of the editorial board began as a first move, to take stock of the situation. We felt that the time was at last ripe for a new book on the subject that should be a final repository of all this vast treasure of scattered information. Patient field ornithologists, on the one hand, and laboratory naturalists, on the other, had given us wonderfully rich material which only awaited assembling. The task even ten years ago would have proved far more difficult. What was clearly needed, was to make a thorough canvass of the field and produce a work at once popular and scientific, and at the same time comprehensive — a record of our wild birds prepared in such form as to meet the needs of both the laymen and the trained naturalist. Ornithologists all over the country heartily endorsed the project; indeed we have seldom seen a work which aroused more enthusiasm in the doing than Birds of America. The official check list of the American Ornithologists' Union has been followed for classi- fication, and we have included not only our common living birds as found to-day, but also many rarer forms and some recently extinct, such as the Passenger Pigeon. We have tried, in a word, to present a complete picture and story of our feathered wild bird life. ORDER OF DIVING BIRDS Order Pygopodes OST aquatic of all our birds are the Diving Birds. Not only are their bodies made so that they can propel themselves on land only with difficulty, but their food consists entirely of fish and other aquatic animals. Their flesh is coarse and unpalatable. They are the lowest form of bird life and are the most i \l>^M^< closely allied to the reptiles, from which birds are supposed to have originated. Birds of this order spend nearly their entire time in the water. Thev nest on the ground or on rocks. The young are covered with down when hatched, and as soon as this natal down is dry they are able to take to the water. The scientific name given to this order, Pygopodes, is from two Greek words meaning " rump " and "foot," and refers to the position of the legs in relation to the rest of the body — a characteristic peculiar to this order. The tibia or drumstick is buried beneath the skin and feathers, bringing the heel joint close to the tail. The birds, therefore, sit or stand in an almost perpendicular position, and walk with great difficulty and awkwardness. The toes are either webbed or broadly lobed. Both body and neck are elongated, giving a boat-shaped appearance to the bird. The bill is homy and pointed and has no pouch ; it can be opened very wide. The wings are very short, scarcely reaching the base of the tail. The latter is never long, and sometimes it is so rudimentary as to make the bird appear tailless. The plumage is dense, and there is no sexual variation in color. The body is almost entirely encased in a layer of fat. According to the development of the tail, the Diving Birds are divided into two sub- orders: the first is the Colyinbi, and contains the one family of Grebes; and the second is the Cepphi, and contains two families, the Loons and the Auks, Murres, and Puffins. GREBES Order Pygopodes: suborder Colyiubi: family ('olyujbidcr HE Grebes are much less pronounced, and consequently less interesting bird characters, than are the Loons, though both families have some of the same physical characteristics, notably skill in the water and clumsiness on land. They are smaller than the Loons and are more likely to be found in inland bodies of fresh water, though their migrations take them to the sea where they are by no means entirely out of their element. Like the Loons, when pursued the Grebes tr>' to escajje by diving and swimming under water, where they propel themselves by their feet; and generally they show decided dis- inclination to take to their wings, though they are swift and strong flyers. Grebes undoubtedly dive with remarkable quickness, but, as in the case of the Loons (and for the same reasons), their cleverness in this operation has been much exaggerated, as at any reasonable distance they are quite unable to dodge a rifle bullet, especially if it be propelled by smokeless powder. Grebes have feet which are lobate, that is, each toe has one or more separate mem- branes which are joined only at the base. The toes are flattened and the nails short and round. The shanks are so flattened as to be nearly blade-like. The bill, which is cone- shajjed, is about the length of the head. The head is generally rufTed or crested, at least in the breeding season, and the neck long. The wings are short and the tail is invisible. The plumage is compact, smooth, and rather hair-like; when well dressed by the bird it is absolutely waterproof, and, therefore, Grebes, though water birds, are never wet. The III 2 BIRDS OF AMERICA extreme posterior position of the legs causes the birds to sit up hke Penguins. On land they sometimes progress on their bellies after the manner of seals. In flight the feet are extended backward and serve as a rudder, as the tail would in another bird. A dense, matted, raft-like structure, made of rushes and the like, and often floating, but usually anchored to some aquatic plant, forms the nest of these strange birds. On this platform are laid from two to nine eggs of dull white or greenish-white. The nest is always damp and the eggs sometimes are hatched when they actually are partly covered with water. " When out of the shell," says one observer, " the young has not far to walk; he looks for a few moments over the edge of his water-drenched cradle and down he goes with the expert- ness of an old diver." Grebes usually are gregarious. When incubation of the full number of eggs has actually begun, the sitting bird upon leaving the nest (unless she is frightened away) completely conceals the eggs with moss and rushes. Few birds have suffered more from the millinery trade than have the Grebes, whose dense and beautiful breast plumage has been much used for decorating hats. Legislation of various kinds curbs this barbaric practice in many parts of the country. \ J Photo by W . L. Finley and H. T. Bohlman WESTERN GREBE The most remarkable point about the food habits of Grebes is that the stomachs almost invariably contain a considerable mass of feathers. Feathers are fed to the young, and there is no question that they play some essential though unknown part in the digestive economy. As they are finely ground in the gizzards it is probable that finally they are digested and the available nutriment assimilated. Feathers constituted practically 66 per cent, of the contents of the 57 Horned Grebe's stomachs examined. However, it is not likely that they furnish a very large percentage of the nourishment needed by the birds. As the nutritive value of the feathers is unknown, this part of the stomach contents is ignored. The other items of food are assigned 100 per cent., and the percentages are given on that basis. Various beetles, chiefly aquatic, compose 23.3 per cent, of the food; other insects (including aquatic bugs, caddis and chironomid larvse, dragon-fly nymphs, etc.), nearly 12 per cent.; fishes, 27.8 per cent.; crawfish 20.7 per cent.; and other Crustacea 13.8 per cent. A little other animal matter is taken, including snails and spiders, and a small quantity of vege- table food was found in two stomachs. GREBES 3 It has been claimed that Grebes Uve exclusively on fish and do mischief in fish hatcheries. The results obtained by stomach examination show that they do not depend wholly or even ehiefiv upon fish. On the contrary, they eat a large number of crawfishes, whicli often severely damage crops, and consume numlicrs of aquatic insects which devour small fishes and the food of such fishes. WESTERN GREBE A. O I .ffichmophorus occ Other Names. — Western Dabchick ; Swan Grebe. General Description. — Length. J4 to jg inches. Color above, brownish-black; below, satiny-white. Head with short crest on top but none on sides; bill, slender; neck nearly the length of the body. Color. — Adults: Forehead, dark ash; crest and narrow line down back of neck, sooty-blackish shading on upper parts into brownish-black; the feathers of back with grayish margins ; primaries, dusky -brown, white at base ; secondaries, white, some dark on outer webs ; sides of head, chin, throat, and entire under parts, pure satiny-white ; bill, yellowish-olive ; feet, dull olive, yel- lowish on webs; outer edge and soles of feet, blackish; iris, orange, pink, or carmine with a white ring ; a narrow bare space from bill to eye, lavender. Xunitier i identalis { La-i^rcncr) Nest and Eggs. — Xest: A matted structure of tule stcni>, gras^. and water-plants, witli a slight depres- sion in the center ; afloat on the water ; usually lightly fastened to the living reeds so that it will move up and down but not be carried away from its position. E(,r.s : Sometimes 3 but usually 4 or 5. pale bluish-green but stained a light brown from contact with the decom- posed vegetable matter of the nest. Distribution. — Western North .America ; breeds from British Columbia, soutliern Saskatchewan, southern AllK-rta, and southern Manitoba south to northern Cali- fornia. Utah, and northern North Dakota ; winters from southern British Columbia and California southward to central Mexico ; casual east to Nebraska, Kansas, Wisconsin. Minnesota, and Quebec. For years, the lake region of sotithcni Ore- gon was tile most protitable held in the W est for the i)lume hunter. The W estern Grebe was the greatest sufferer. This diver of glistening-white breast and silvery-gray back was sought not without reason. The Grebe hunters call the skin of this bird fur rather than feathers, because it is so tough it can be scraped and handled like a hide, and because the thick warm plumage seems more like the fur of a mammal than the skin of a bird. These skins, when prepared and placed on th.c market iit the form of coats and capes, brought the prices of the most expensive furs. Formerly there were immense colonies of Western Grebes living along the north shore of Tule, or Rhett, Lake, Lower Klamath Lake, and Malheur Lake, flume hunters, however, sotight out these big colonies and shot great numbers of the birds during the nesting season, leaving the eggs to spoil and the young to starve to death. This decreased the inimbers so rapidly that within a few seasons tlie birds were exterminated in places. Malheur Lake is a large body of shallow water surrounded on all sides by great stretches of tules. The whole border is a veritable jungle, an almost endless area of floating tule islands between which is a network of channels. Here is the typical home of the Western Grebe. In the edge of the tules, the Grebe gathers tule stems and other vegetation, making a floating raft Photo by F. M. Chapman Courtesy "f N'at. .\sso. Aud. Soc. TWO WESTERN GREBES JUST HATCHED BIRDS OF AMERICA which is anchored. Around the edges of one of these islands, which was two acres in extent, we found between forty and fifty nests. The usual number of eggs was four or five. On several occasions, we watched a Grebe chick cut his way out of the shell and liberate himself. After he gets his bill through in one place, he goes at the task like clockwork. He turns himself a little and begins hammering in a new place and keeps this up until he has made a complete revolution in his shell. The end or cap of the egg, cut clear around, drops ofif, and the youngster kicks himself out into the sunshine. It doesn't take his coat long to dry. The Grebe parents have an interesting way of taking their young with them. The chicks ride on the back of the mother or father just under the wing-coverts with the head sticking out. Sometimes one may see an old Grebe carrying two or three young on his back. At the slightest alarm, the old bird raises the feathers and covers the chicks completely. One can readily tell when a Grebe has chicks on his back, even if not visible, because he ajipears to swim higher in the water. Normally, the body is almost sub- merged. An old Grebe not only swims, but dives readily, keeping the young in place on his back. William L. Finley. HOLBCELL'S GREBE Colymbus holboelli { Rciiihardf) A. O. U. Xumher 2 See t'olor 1'l.Tte I Other Names. — .\merican Red-necked Grche; Red- necked drebe; Hcdhpell's Diver. General Description. — Length, 19 inches. In Si'm- mer: Glossy greenish-black above, and silvery-white below. In Wi.nter: Grayish-brown above, and gray- ish-white below. Neck shorter than body ; bill, nearly as long as head ; crest lacking or inconspicuous. Largest of the Grebes. Color. — .•\dults in Summer: Crozvn, back of urck, and nf>pcr t^arts, glossy cjrccnish-black. darker on head, more brownish on back where the feathers are edged with grayish ; wing-coverts and primaries, dusky-brown ; secondaries, white with brown tips and black shafts; a broad area including chin, throat, and sides of head, sik'cry-gray, lightening along juncture with black of crown ; rest of neck and upper part of breast, deep brownish-rufous; under parts, silvery-white shaded along sides with pale ash. each feather with a dark shaft line and terminal spot, producing a dappled effect; bill, dusky, yellow below and at base ; iris, carmine with a white ring. .A.DULTS in Winter, .\nd Young: Crown, neck all around, and upper parts, grayish-brown, the feathers of back with lighter edges ; sides of head and throat, whitisli ; under parts, grayish-white, the mottling of summer plumage obsolete; bill, obscured but showing some pale yellow below ; iris, as in summer. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: .Attached to live rushes; constructed of reeds, decayed vegetable matter, grass, and mud. Ecgs : 3 to 5, dull white, usually soiled with brownish. Distribution. — North America at large, eastern .Siberia, and southwest to Japan ; breeds from north- western Alaska across British America to northern Ungava, south to northern Washington, Montana, and southwestern Minnesota; common throughout the United States in winter; south to southern California, southern Colorado, the Ohio valley and North Carolina ; casual in Georgia and Greenland. -Some Grebes colonize in breeding, as do the Western and Eared Grebes. In Holboell's Grebe, however, we have the one large species of North America which is distinctly a lover of personal solitude. Its breeding grounds, or perhaps more properly waters, are the sloughs and marshes of the northwest States and Canadian provinces. Here, in the deep bogs, it places its soggy semi- floating pile of decaying vegetation amid the areas of reeds or canes growing from the water. One can seldom see the brooding bird on the nest. On being approached she hastily pulls debris over the three or four dirty-white eggs, com- pletely covering them, then slips into the water and dives, showing herself no more until the in- truder has surely vanished. During the breeding season these Grebes are very noisy. The male (probably it is he) swims into the open water of the lakes, if such there be, and emits the most astonishing succession of yells and waitings, which probably are the happy expression of the torrent of his tender emotions, though to our ears they may rather resemble cries of distress. Later in the season he gets bravely GREBES over such manifestations of weakness, and is silent enough for anyone. Then he is usually seen " bv his lonesome," out on some body of water, frequently on the ocean, well off the beach, where he can exercise to fine advantage his really great powers of diving. Holbcell's Grebes are hardy birds, and often winter as far to the north as they can find open water, and are frequent in winter along our North Atlantic coast. They have a fatal tendency to linger too late in the northern lakes, and thus they get caught in the ice, or, driven to fly south, cannot find open water, and fall exhausted on the land or into snow banks. This is notably the case in the month of Alarch, when they migrate north earlier than is safe. Since they cannot ri:.e on wing except from water, as their wings are small, many of them perish out of their element. It is a common occurrence for farmers and others to pick them up in fields or roads, helplessly waddling about on legs set too far " aft " to make them handv ashore. Rut in the water there is no bird more swift and facile, better able to take care of itself, more able in the pursuit of the small fry which constitute its nor- mal nre\'. Photo by H. K. J. NEST OF HOLBCELL'S GREBE HORNED GREBE Colymbus auritus I.iinuciis A. O U. -Number j .See Color I'late i Other Names. — Hell-diver: Water-witch; Devil- divL-r ; Pink-eyed Diver : Dipper. General Description. — Length. 14 inches. Color abo\ e, yrayish-brown or dusky-gray ; below, white. In summer, adults have crests or ruffs on cheeks and sides of head. Color, — Adults in Sum.mer: Crown, chin, throat and crest, c/lossy grcriiisli-hlack : a stripe from bill through eye and above it, widening behind to nape, hro-,vnish-yclh)w: upper parts, grayish-brown ; feathers, paler-edged ; primaries, dusky-brown : secondaries, zchitc: neck all around (except for dusky stripe behind), sides, and flanks, rich brownish-rufous; rest of under parts, silky-white ; bill, dusky tipped with yellow ; iris, carmine with white ring ; feet, dusky outside, yellow inside. Adults in Winter, and Young : Ruff, obsolete ; forehead, crown to level of eyes, a narrow strip down back of neck and upper parts, dusky-gray ; feathers of back with lighter edges ; wings, as in summer ; chin, throat, and sides of head, pure silky-white; front of neck and lower abdomen, washed with gray; bill, dusky, yellowish or bluish-white below. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : A buoyant platform of dead reeds, grass, and vegetation. Eccs ; 3 to 7. white. Distribution. — Northern part of northern hemi- sphere ; breeds from the lower Yukon across British America to southern Ungava and the Magdalen Islands, south to southern British Coluinbia, across United States on about the parallel 45° to Maine; winters from southern British Columbia, southern Ontario, and Maine south to the Gulf coast and Florida; casual in Greenland. Horned (irebes are commonly known as " Hell-divers " or " W ater-witches," because of their facility in disappearing and the mystery as to where they go. This species often mvstifies the hunter by sinking slowlv backward imtil nearly out of sight or by diving and disappearing altogether, until the novice is ready to make oath that the bird has committed suicide for fear of his deadly marksmanship ; but the ( irebe merely submerges and swims beneath the surface until among the water plants, where it remains se- cure with its beak just protruding unnoticed above the water, or hidden by some overhang- ing leaf. \\'hen wounded it sometimes dives BIRDS OF AMERICA and swims along under water to the cover of overhanging vegetation on tlie bank, when it creeps ashore unseen and liides amid the verdant cover. Photo by H. K. Job Courtesy ot Outing Pub. Co. HORNED GREBE {Spring Plumage) This drebe is one of the quickest of divers, often escaping a charge of shot by its activity in going under. \Mien alarmed it lies very low in the water, and, if it can get its head and neck beneath the surface before the shot reaches the spot, its vital parts are likely to escape unharmed. It frequents small ponds and little streams with grassy banks, but where much persecuted by gunners seeks the larger lakes or the sea for greater safety. Ordinarily in swimming under water it does not appear to use its wings, but probably all diving birds utilize their wing power when in pursuit of elusive prey. Mr. C. \\'. \''ibert of South Windsor, Connecticut, kept a bird of this species that was seen to raise its wings slightly when swimming beneath the sur- face. When storms prevail at sea in fall and winter flocks of Grebes often are driven into the ponds of the interior. At such times they may be seen asleep on the water in the daytime with the head dra\'\'n down on the back and the bill thrust into the feathers of the shoulder or breast, keeping their place head to the wind by a sort of auto- matic paddling. .Sometimes a sleepy bird uses only one foot and so swings about in a circle. Edward Howe Forbush. EARED GREBE Colymbus nigricollis californicus (Hccrmann) !\. O. U. Number 4 Other Names. — .•\incricaii Eared Grebe ; Eared Diver. General Description. — Length. 12 to 14 inches. Color above, dusky ; below, white. In summer adults have long, faii-slnif'cd car-tufts of fine feathers. Color. — Adults in Summer: Ear-tufts, golden- broivn ; crown, chin, throat, and neck all around, blade; upper parts, dusky ; primaries, dusky ; secondaries, white, dusky at base; sides, deep purplish-brown with a wash of the same color across breast and on under tail- coverts ; under parts, silky white ; abdomen, tinged with gray ; bill, black ; feet, olive, dusky outside and on soles ; iris, red; eyelids, orange. Adults in Winter: No ear tufts; crown and narrow band on back of neck and upper parts, grayish-dusky; chin, throat, and sides of head, wliite ; under parts, silvery-white: sides and flanks, tinged with gray. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : A floating platform of reeds and vegetation, on shallow lagoons, ponds, or lakes. Eggs : 4 to 6, soiled white. Distribution. — Western North .America; breeds from Central British Columbia, Great Slave Lake, Sas- katchewan, and Manitoba south to southern California, northern Arizona, northern Nebraska, and northern Iowa; winters from central California southward to Cape -San Lucas and Guatemala ; east to Kansas in migration; casual in Missouri, Indiana, and Ontario. Out on the main part of Malheur Lake in southeastern Oregon, we came ujjon a colony of Eared Grebes. These birds were nesting well out in the open water. I counted one hundred and sixty-five nests scattered over an area of two or three acres. Some homes were but a few feet a])art. The nest itself was a very interest- ing structure. It was built entirely of water weeds, commonly called milfoil, which grew in the shallow water. The nest consisted of the long slender runners pulled together from a dis- tance of several feet around. It looked to me as if these weeds when piled together, would sink. On the contrary, I found the nest quite GREBES buoyant. Long red stems, kept alive by the water, often extended to the bottom. In a few cases, I found the birds had collected piece :. of dry tule stems as a sort of lining to their plat- form nests. From a distance, the nest colony presented a line of Ijiood-rcd against a back- ground of green tales. When we approached the Eared Grebe colony. paid no attention to this. I watched one bird as she pulled up the stems out of the water and from the lining of the nest covering her eggs comjiletely, so when we came near, there was not an egg in sight. I do not know whether this habit develops more from the idea of protecting the eggs from enemies, or from the idea of keep- ing them warm when the mother is away. The Photu by W. L. Finlcy and H. T. Bohlman EARED GREBE (Spring Plumage) Though a water-bird, it is never wet everything was bustle and hurry. The birds were trying to cover their eggs before leaving. It seemed to be a habit in this colony to cover the eggs, while the Western Grebe on the same lake eggs often lie partly in the water. The sun, I think, helps a good deal in hatching the eggs during the day, the bird keeping a more careful vigil at night. William L. Finley. PIED-BILLED GREBE Podilymbus podiceps ( Liiuuciis) A. O. U. Xuniber (> See Color Plate i Other Names. — Hell-diver ; Devil-diver ; Water- witch ; Dabchick ; American Dahchick : Pied-hilled Dab- chick; Dipper; Diedapper ; Didapper ; Divedapper ; Carolina Grebe; Thick-billed Grebe. General Description. — Length, 13 inches. Color aliove, brownish-hlack ; below, lighter brown and white. Bill, short and thick; no crests. Color. — Adults: Crown, back of head, and neck, grayish-black streaked with lighter; upper parts, brown- ish-black; sides of head and neck, brownish-gray; chin and throat, black; primaries and sccouiiarics, dutcolatc- I'l-D'cn: hi'hni'. pale hroii.'ni.tli-ash, thickly mottled with dusky on sides ; lower abdomen, mostly dusky ; bill, jvhitish, dusky on ridge and tip xvilh a black encircling 8 BIRDS OF AMERICA band a little forward of the center ; feet, greenish- dusky outside, leaden-gray inside ; iris, brown ; eyelids, whitish. Adults in Winter: General coloration on head and upper parts more brownish than in summer ; the feathers of back with paler edges ; neck, breast, and sides, light brown mottled with dusky ; under parts, pure silky white ; lower abdomen, grayish. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: A floating structure of dead grass, reeds, mud, and vegetable matter, unattached or fastened to living rushes. Eggs : 6 to 9. white, some- times tinged with greenish. Distribution. — North and South America ; breeds from ISritish Columbia, southern Mackenzie, southern Keewatin, Quebec, and New Brunswick southward to Chile and Argentina; winters from Washington, Texas, Mississippi, and the Potomac valley southward. The Pied-billed Grebe is the most widely dis- appointed Hawk has gone his way. As a diver tributed of the American Grebes and in the it has few equals in the bird world. Many United States is the only one that breeds over times, especially in the days when muzzle-loading most of the region east of the Mississip]i!. It shotguns were still in vogue, I have seen it Drawing by R. I. Braslier PIED-BILLED GREBE (J nat. size) A more accomplished swimmer than any Duck is at home in the water to an astonishing degree, in fact " Water-witch " is one of the favorite local names by which it is known. It is a more accomplished swimmer than any Duck of which I have knowledge, for it possesses the wonderful faculty of lowering its body in the water to any desired stage of submersion, and this it can do either while swimming or while remaining sta- tionary, as may suit its fancy. At times only the bill and eyes will appear above the surface, and in this attitude it can remain apparently without distress until the bewildered hunter or the dis- dive at the flash of discharge and be safely be- neath the surface before the death-seeking shot came over the water. " Hell-diver," by the way, is another name applied to Grebes as well as to Loons. The remarkable nest made by this species is quite in keeping with its other unusual and se- cretive characteristics. It is made of decaying vegetation brought up from the bottom of the shallow pond where it breeds. This unattractive mass is usually piled on a platform of green stems of water plants, which, because of their GREBES fresh condition, will readily float and are of suffi- cient buoyancy to bear the \vei,i,''ht of the ne'^t, the eggs, and the brooding bird. In Morida, where I have examined perhaps fifty of their nests, I never found more than six eggs in any one of them, but observers farther north speak of finding as many as eight and nine. In color they are dull white, unspotted, but sometimes tinged with greenish, and always soiled or stained. When leaving its nest the Grebe jjulls the water-soaked material well over tlie eggs, so that usually they are completely hiddeii from view. While in this condition anyone not acquainted with the nesting habits of the bird w^ould surely pass it by unnoticed, never dreaming that in that little mass of floating, rotting water-jjlants the cherished treasures of a wild bird lay concealed. .\udubon said that the food of the Pied-billed Grebe " consists of small fry, plant-seeds, aquatic insects, and snails ; along with this they swallow- gravel." Wayne writes: " FOuring the breeding season, the food consists mainlv of leeches." They should never be shot, for they are worse than useless for food. They certainlv do no harm, and an ever-increasing class of bird-stu- dents take much pleasure in spying upon their 'Uteresting movements. They have many enemies, among which mav be mentioned minks, fish, frogs, snakes, and musk- rats. Birds of prey undoubtedly take their share. One day with much labor I climbed an enormous [)ine tree to a nest of the Bald Eagle around which the old birds were circling. Upon reach- ing it after a ])rolonged and heart-breaking efl^ort I found it to contain only one object — a Pied- billed Grebe, with its feathers still damp and the lilood spots on its head but half dried. T. Gilbert Pe.xkso.x. PIED-BILLED GREBE Swimming up to its newly hatched young that has struggled from the nest lO BIRDS OF AMERICA LOONS Order Pygopodcs; suborder Ccpplii: family Gaviidcc S a family the Loons of the present seem to be very much the same kind of birds as were those of which we have fossil remains in strata representing what the geologists call the Miocene Epoch of the Tertiary Period. They are birds of considerable size, and are famous especially for their skill and swiftness in swimming and diving and for their weird and unearthly cries. Their quickness in diving to escape danger is truly astonishing, and has, nat- urally enough, furnished occasion for frequent exaggeration, also excuses for much bad shooting by gunners who assert that they held true, but the Loon " dodged the shot." They have a peculiar faculty of sinking gradually in the water without apparent effort and with little or no rippling of the surface of the water. Sumn Winter Drawing by R, I. Braslicr LOON 1 b nac. size A clumsy, awkward traveler upon land, but almost unexcelled as a dive." Loons take wing with considerable difficulty, but once in the air their flight is swift and usually in a straight line. At all times the sexes present the same general appearance. Their prevailing colors are blackish or grayish above, with the under parts whitish ; in summer the darker parts become speckled with white. These markings do not appear in the young nor in the winter plumage of the adults; the very young are covered with a sooty grayish down, changing to white on the lower abdomen. The head is never crested, but both head and neck are velvety. The plumage of the body is hard and compact. The wings are pointed, short, and rather narrow. The eighteen or twenty tail feathers are short and stiff. The hind toe is small and the front toes are fully webbed. The bill is stout, straight, narrow, sharp-pointed, and sharp-edged; it is so constructed that it serves as a spear for catching and holding the slippery fish which are the bird's chief diet. Though related to the Auks, which show a highly developed gregarious instinct, the Loons are essentially solitan,^ birds, and commonly are found singly or in pairs. The for- mation of ice in their natural habitats, however, at times forces a considerable number of individuals to occupy the same comparatively small stretches of open water. The distribution of the Loons is circumpolar, and the single genus includes five species. In the breeding period they occur generally in the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere, and frequently some distance north of the Arctic Circle; in winter they scatter southward •a IH 5 J3 H ll'J 12 BIRDS OF AMERICA into the temperate regions, especially along the seacoasts. The nests are rude structures, composed of moss and grass sometimes plastered with a little mud, and are built on the ground usually along the shore of a lake and frequently on top of the abandoned lodge of a muskrat. The birds seem to make no attempt to hide their nests, but the two eggs, by reason of their olive or brownish shades, which are broken by blackish or brownish spots, are decidedly inconspicuous. The cry of the Loon has been variously described as mournful, mirthful, sinister, defiant, uncanny, demoniacal, and so on. At any rate, it is undeniably distinctive and character- istic, and is almost certain to challenge the dullest ear and the most inert imagination, while in those who know instinctively the voices of Nature, especially when she is frankly and unrestrainedly natural, it produces a thrill and elicits a response which only the elect understand. LOON Gavia immer { Brihinich) A. O. U. Number 7 See Color I'late j Other Names. — Common Loon ; Big Loon ; Great Northern Diver ; Imber Diver ; Hell-diver ; Ember- Goose ; Walloon ; Ring-necked Loon ; Black-billed Loon ; Guinea Duck ; Greenhead. General Description. — Length, 28 to 36 inches. In Summer: Upper parts, glossy black with white spots; under parts, white. In Winter; Upper parts, grayish- brown without spots. Color. — Adults in Summer: Head and neck all around, glossy purplish-black with greenish reflections ; a patch of sharp white streaks on lower throat ; another of the same kind on each side of neck, separated in front, but sometimes meeting behind ; cjitirc upper parts, wiiic/'covcrts, and inner secondaries, glossy black, thickly marked luith ivhitc spots — those of shoulders, inner secondaries, and back, large, square, and regu- larly arranged traversely, those of other parts oval, smallest on rump and wing-coverts ; upper tail-coverts, greenish-black; primaries, dusky; lower parts from neck, li'hite: sides of breast, streaked with black; bill and feet, black; iris, red. .\dults in Winter. .\nd Young: Crown, neck and upper parts, in general, gray- ish-brown, the feathers of hack with lighter edges; primaries, black; tail, gray-tipped; sides of breast, mottled; chin, throat, and neck in front (narrowly), and under parts, white with some dark feathers on sides and under tail-coverts, thus no black or white spots; bill, dusky, bluish-white at base and below ; feet, lighter than in summer ; iris, brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Usually sand, without nesting material; in rough nest is constructed of sticks and reeds; occa- sionally the top of an old muskrat house is utilized. Eggs : 2, dark olive-gray, stained spotted with black. Distribution. — -Northern part of sphere; in North .*\merica breeds from Alaska across Arctic North America to Greenland, south to northern California, across the United States at about the paral- lel 42° to Nova Scotia; winters from southern British Columbia, the Great Lakes, and southern New England to Lower California, the Gulf coast, and Florida. a hollow in the some localities a with brown and northern hemi- Of all the wild creatures which still persist in the land, despite settlement and civilization, the Loon seems best to typify the untamed savagery of the wilderness. Its wolf-like cry is the wildest sound now heard in Massachusetts, where na- ture has long been subdued by the rifle, ax, and plow. Sometimes at sea, when I have heard the call of the Loon from afar, and seen its white breast flash from the crest of a distant wave, 1 have imagined it the signal and call for help of some strong swimmer, battling with the waves. It is generally believed that in migration at least the Loon passes the night ttpon the sea or the bosom of some lake or river. The Gulls, Auks, Puffins, and Cormorants, which live upon the sea, usually alight upon the high shores of some rocky island or on some lonely sand bar at night, btit the Loon is often seen at sea when night falls, and its cries are heard by the sailors during the hotirs of darkness. Notwithstanding the general belief that it normally sleeps on the water, I believe that it jirefers to rest on shore at night, when it can safely do so. Audubon satisfied himself that on its breeding grotinds it was accustomed to spend the night on shore. On an island oif the coast of British Columbia, where there was no one to trouble the birds, I once saw, just at nightfall, a pair of Loons I' !; :t^i;.»?- ^'. M ; O e o; S IS o =„.. LOONS 13 resting flat on their breasts at the end of a long sandy point. Cripples instinctively seek the shore when sorely wounded, but on our coast a Loon must keep well ofT shore to insure its safety, and probably few but cripples ever land on shores frequented by man. The Loon's nest is usually a mere hollow in the bog or shore near the water's edge on some island in a lake or pond. Sometimes the nest is lined with grasses and bits of turf : more rarely it is a mere depression on the top of a muskrat's house, and more rarely still ft is placed on the shore of the lake or in some debduchhig sli'cam. Where the birds are not much disturbed, and where food is plentiful, two or three pairs some- times nest on the same inland. No doubt there was a time when nearly every northern pond of more than a few acres contained its pair of Loons, in the breeding season, and this is true to-dav of ponds in parts of some Canadian Prov- inces. The nest is usually so near the margin that the bird can spring directly into the water, but sometimes in summer the water recedes until the nest is left some dibtance inland. The Loon is a clumsy, awkward traveler upon land, where, when hurried, it flounders forward, using both wings and feet, .\udubon, liowever, says that his son, J. W. Audubon, winged a Loon which ran about one hiuidred yards and reached the water before it was overtaken, lis usual method of taking to the water from its nest is by plunging forward and sliding on its breast. It cannot rise from the land, hence the necessity of having the nest at the water's edge. When the young are hatched the mother carries them about on her back a few days, after which they remain afloat much of the time until they are fully grown. If food becomes scarce in their native pond they sometimes leave it and travel overland to another. Dr. James P. Hatch of Si^ringfield, Mass., says that early in the morning the parents and the well-grown voung run races on the lake, using their broad paddles for pro- pulsion and their half-extended wings for partial su])port. Starting all together they race down the lake, and then, turning, rush back to their starting point. Such exercise-- nn rioubt strengthen the young birds for the long flights to come. The Loon finds some difficulty in rising from the water, and is obliged to run along the sur- face, flapjiing its short wings, until it gets impetus enough to rise. It is said that it cannot rise at all unless there is wind to assist it. lt>< groat weight (from eight to nearly twelve pounds) and its short wings make flight laborious, but its rapid wing-beats carry it through the air at great speed. When it alights it often shoots spirally down from a great height, and plunges into the water like an arrow from a bow. It lands with a splash, and shoots along the surface until its impetus is arrested by the resistance of the water. The Loon is almost unexcelled as a diver. It is supposed to be able to disappear so suddenly at the flash of a rifle as to dodge the bullet, unless the shooter is at point-l)lank range, but when two or three crack shots surround a small pond in which a Loon is resting it can usually be secured by good strategy. I once saw a Loon killed on the water with .a shotgun, but the bird was taken at a disadvantage. It was on the Banana River, Fla., in January. 1900. and it had followed the fish (which were then very numer- ous) into the shallow water near the shore. Shoals extended out from ihe shore fullv three hundred yards, so that the bird, in diving and swimming under water, could not use its wings to advantage. It was much impeded by the shoals and the vegetation on the bottom, and in swim- ming was so near the surface that its course could be followed readily by the ripple that it made. Two strong rowers were thus enabled to follow and overtake it. It escaped the first charge of shot, but its pursuers came so close the second time that the shot went home. In deep water, where the bird can use its wings and fly under water like a bolt from a crossbow, it can easily elude a boat. In old times the gunner used to " toll " the Loon within gunshot by concealing himself and waving a brightly colored handker- chief, while imitating the bird's call. But this will rarely succeed to-day in luring one within reach of a shotgun. Loons are rather solitary in the autumn mi- gration. They leave their northern homes and some begin to move southward in September, but many remain in the northern lakes until the ice comes. They move south along the larger rivers of the interior, but most of those near the Atlantic take the sea as their highway. The Loon feeds very largely on fish. As it rests lightlv on the surface it frccpiently thrusts its head into the water and looks about in search of its prev. When pursuing swift fish under water it often uses its wings, by means of which it can overtake the swiftest. This has been re- peatedly observed. ll can travel much faster under water in this manner than it can on the surface by use of the feet alone. EDW.^KD ITnwK Forrush, in Game Birds, IVild-Fo7i'l and Shore Birds. H BIRDS OF AMERICA The Yellow-billed Loon, {Gaz'ia adaiiisi) ^^'hite-billed Loon, or Adams's Loon, as it is variously called, is of the same general colora- tion as the Common Loon. The throat and neck patches, however, are smaller and the bill, which is larger and differently shaped, is pale yellowish white. It is subject to corresponding seasonal changes. It breeds in northern Siberia, on the islands north of Europe, and in North America from northwestern Alaska, northern Mackensie, and Boothia Peninsula south to the mouth of the Yukon and to Great Slave Lake. Its nests and eggs, as far as known, are similar to those of the more familar Loon. In migration the Yellow- billed is found a little south of its breeding range, and sijeciniens have been reported from Colorado and Greenland. BLACK-THROATED LOON Gavia arctica {Linuu-us) A. O. V. -\umljer 9 ."^ee Color Plate 2 Other Names. — .Arctic Loon; Arctic Diver; Ulack- throated Diver. General Description. — Length. 27 to 30 inches. In Su.m.mer: Upper parts, glossy greenish-black with white spots; lower parts white. In Winter: Upper parts, grayish-brown without spots. Color. — .Adults in Summer: Chin, throat, and front of neck, purplish-black, shading gradually into clear soft warm gray of crown, back of head, and hindncck, deepest on forehead and face, lightest behind, and sep- arated from black of front of neck by white streaks; a short crescent of white streaks across upper throat; sides of breast and neck striped with pure white and glossy black, the black diminishing behind into pure white of under parts; upper parts, glossy greenish- black- each feather on shoulders and back with two whit* square spots near end forming traverse rows ; wing-coverts thickly specked with small oval white spots ; a narrow dusky band across lower belly ; under tail-coverts, with dusky spots ; bill, black ; feet, dusky ; iris. red. Adults in Winter, and YouN(i: Upper parts of head and neck, dark grayish-brown ; sides of head, grayish-white finely streaked with brown ; upper parts, hrownish-hlack, feathers ivith broad gray margins, giv- ing a scaly appearance : rump, brownish-gray; pri- maries and their coverts, brownish-black; secondaries and tail-feathers, dusky margined with gray; forepart of neck, grayish-white faintly dotted with brown, its sides streaked with same ; lower parts, pure white ; sides of body and lower tail-coverts, dusky edged with bluish-gray; bill, light bluish-gray, dusky on ridge; feet, dusky ; iris, brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: A depression in the tundra or constructed roughly of decayed vegetation. Eccs ; 2. cleep anilier to pale greenish-gray. Distribution. — Northern part of iiortliern hemi- sphere ; breeds from Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, west along northern coast of Siberia, on islands north of Europe, and from Cumberland Sound south to Ungava ; winters in the southern Canadian provinces ; rarely south to Colorado, Nebraska, Iowa, northern Ohio, and Long Island, N. Y. The general appearance of the Black-throated Loon is like that of its relative, the Common Loon, but it is somewhat smaller and not nearly so well known in America since it is seldom seen south of the northern States. There seems to be no reliable record of its appearance south of Long Island. Throughout the interior of Nor- way and .Sweden and far up into Lapland, it breeds quite commonly. It is considered to be of rare occurrence in most parts of the British Isles, but on the little islands in the fresh-water lochs from central Scotland northward, and on the Orkney and Shetland islands, may be found its nests. Its habits also are like those of the larger mem- ber of its species. Its progress under water has been estiiuated at not less than eight miles an hour. The Pacific Loon or Pacific Diver ( Gavia pacifica ) is confined to the West. It breeds from Point Barrow, Banks Land, northern Mac- kenzie, and Melville Peninsula, south to the base of the Alaskan Peninsula, Great .Slave Lake, and central Keewatin and winters along the Paci- fic coast from southern British Columbia to Lower California, and Guadalupe Island. In coloration it is similar to the Black-throated Loon, but the gray of the head averages lighter and the light spots of the back larger and fewer in number. LOONS RED-THROATED LOON Gavia stellata { Poiitoppidaii) A. O. U. Xumljcr II See Color I'late j Other Names. — Sprat Loon, Kcd-tliroatcd Diver; Little Loon; (.ape Race; Cape Racer; Scape-grace. General Description. — Lengtii, 2$ inches. Color above, brownish-black with white spots ; below, white. Color. — .Adults in Summer: Crown and broad stripe down back of neck, streaked in about equal amounts with glossy greenish-black and white; throat, sidi's of head, and sides of neck, clear 'a\inn gray with a tri- angular chestnut patch on lozver throat; upper parts, brownish-black with a green gloss, thickly spotted with dull whitish; primaries, dusky; tail, dusky, narrowly tipped with white; under parts, pure white, shaded along sides and on under tail-coverts with dusky brown ; bill, dusky lead color; feet, black; iris, hazel. Auults IN Winter, and Younc: Crown and hindneck, bluish- gray; sides of neck, mottled with brownish and white; upper parts, brownish-black, ez'eryichere thickly marked with small oval and linear spots of ichitish: chin, throat. sides of head, white; no colored throat patch; under parts, as in summer; amount of spotting variable; in young birds spots usually lengthened into oblique lines, Iiroducing a rcjular diamond-shaped reticulation. Nest and Eggs.— Nest : On banks of small ponds; a mere hollow in the ground. Ece.s : 2. from deep reddish-brown to grayish-green, thinly spotted with brownish-black. Distribution.— Northern part of northern hemi- sphere; breeds from .•Maska across Arctic .•\merica to Greenland, south to Commander Islands, western Aleu- tian Islands, Glacier Bay, across British America to New Brunswick and Newfoundland; winters from southern British Columbia to southern California, and from the Great Lakes and Maine to Florida ; rare in the interior; breeds also in Arctic Europe and Asia, and winters south to the Mediterranean and southern China. The Red-throated Loon is mainly a salt-water bird while it sojourns in Massachusetts, although occasionally it is seen on some lake or river. Probably, like many other birds, it was oftener seen on fresh water in early times than now. It is still not uncommon on the Great Lakes, and David Brtice of Brockport, N. Y., stated that he had found it on Lake Ontario during every month of the year. In severe weather, when the lakes freeze, this bird, like the Common Loon, is some- times taken on the ice, from which it is unable to rise, and is easily captured. In autumn it may be seen in small jiarties or flocks floating and feeding near our coasts. Like Grebes and some other water-fowl, it often lies on its side or back while afloat, exposing its white under parts while engaged in dressing or jireening the plumage. This species migrates mainly along the coast in autumn, but as it is not so commonly seen there in spring, some portion of the flight may go north through the interior. Its habits are similar to those of the Common Loon. It is perhaps equally difficult to shoot on the water. When surprised on land it seeks to escape by a series of hops or leaps, using both wings and feet. Edward Howe Forbush, in CaniL- Birds. U'ikl-fo:^'! and Shore Bird.s. Photo by H. T. Middlctun BIRD-STUDYING \"lM,. I- i6 BIRDS OF AMERICA AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS Order Pygopodes; suborder Cepphi; family Alcida T is a curious and interesting fact that at opposite ends of the earth there should be forms of bird-life which, though entirely unrelated and differing from each other even in the signal respect that one is equipped with wings and uses them, while the other is flightless, nevertheless present similar and some- what grotesque physical peculiarities, and much similarity in their habits. These birds are the Auks of the Arctic and the Penguins of the Antarctic regions, and their external similarity lies in the fact that in both the legs are set so far back on the body that the birds assume a man-like posture, and are clumsy and uncouth in their appearance on shore. In the water both are expert swimmers and divers, though here again they differ in that the Auks use their feet in swimming, whereas the Penguins swim entirely with their wings, and use their feet only in steering their course. The Auks, Murres, and Puffins include diving Arctic sea-birds grouped under the scientific name Alcida, and embracing about a dozen genera and some thirty species. All members of the family are essentially birds of the Arctic regions, and are especially numerous on the Alaskan and Siberian coasts. Though the Auks resemble the Penguins superficially and in their habits, anatomically their nearest relatives are the Loons and Grebes. From the Loons, however, they differ in lacking a hind toe, and from the Grebes in the possession of a well-developed tail. Photo by W. L. Fmley and H. T. Bohlman TUFTED PUFFIN ON NEST Burrow unearthed AUKS, AlURRES, AND PUFFINS 17 The wings are short, but they are used with great efficiency when the birds swim under water. In their sitting posture on hind the birds' feet extend horizontally in front, and they appear to be resting on their rumps. On the sea they are in their element, and here they get all of their food, which includes fish, taken chiefly by pursuit under water, and other animal forms. Because of this life their plumage is remarkably thick and dense, and is much used by the Eskimos in making clothing. In distribution the Auks are very unequally divided between the two northern oceans, the Atlantic having few forms in comparison with the Pacific. The largest number of species and the most diversified forms are found on the northern coasts of the Pacific, though the aggregate of individuals of any species found there does not, according to Dr. Coues, exceed that of several Atlantic Ocean species. The same authority says that a " more or less com- plete migration takes place with most species, which stray southward, sometimes to a con- siderable distance, in the autumn and return again to breed in the spring. A few species appear nearly stationary." Many of the migrating Auks pass the winter on the open sea or on drifting ice. At the approach of spring weather, the birds return to their northern breeding grounds where they gather in immense numbers on rocky cliffs along the coast. No nest is built, but the single egg, which is laid in niches or on ledges, is covered constantly by one or the other of the parents. The color of the egg varies greatly with the different species. The young are helpless when they are hatched, and it is not known with certainty what methods are employed by the parents to get them to the water. It seems not unlikely that the chicks are sometimes carried to the sea by the adults, though doubtless many of them reach the water by scrambling and falling down the cliffs. These Auk colonies are frequently raided by foxes, weasels, and other predacious animals and birds, not to mention the Indians and Eskimos who depend largely upon the birds and their eggs for winter food. TUFTED PUFFIN Lunda cirrhata { Pallas) A. O. U. Number 12 Other Name. — Sea Parrot. uily-green : rosette of moutli, yellow ; iris, white. .-Xdllts General Description. — Length. 15 inches. Color IM Winter: No crests or white on face; bill, mostly above, black; below, brown; bill, hif/h, much com- dusky with some touches of reddish ; feet, pale salmon ; pressed, ridged on sides; a fold of naked skin at iris, pale blue; otherwise like summer birds, corner of mouth. Nest and Eggs. — The single egg is laid on the bare Description. — Adults in Summer : A tuft of straw- ground at the end of a burrow or in natural cavities yellow feathers on each side of head about 4 inches among rocks, sometimes within sight, sometimes as long, completely surrounding eyes and continuous with much as five feet from the entrance ; it is dead-white, white of face, forehead, and chin (narrowly) ; crown showing obscure shell markings of pale lavender or between the crests and entire upper parts, except a brownish. line on wing along fore-arm (which is white), glossy Distribution. — Coasts and island; of the Arctic blue-black: entire under parts from chin, including Ocean, Bering Sea, and North Pacific, from Cape most of sides of head, sooty-brownish, more grayish on Lisburne, .Maska, south to Santa Barbara Islands, abdomen; under tail-coverts, wings, and tail, black; California, and from Bering Sea to Japan; accidental bill, feet, and eye-ring, vermilion; base of bill, pale in IMaine and Greenland. The islands of the north Pacific, scattered pear like fleets of ships. .Sound is magnified along the shores of British Columbia, form, with until the explosion of a gun and its echoes roar their surrounding waters and the verdant coast along the shores, a carnival of sound. Swift line, a veritable .summer wonderland. Here the tides boil through narrow, rocky passes, while the mirage makes birds sitting upon the water ap- shimmering heat of summer gives a touch of i8 BIRDS OF AMERICA waverint,^ unreality to all the scene. In this en- chanted realm thousands of queer birds move to and fro, and none is queerer than the Tufted Puffin. Each looks like a masked caricature of a bird as it comes on, pushing its great red beak straight ahead, its red, splay feet spread widely, its long, cream-colored side plumes flying in the wind, and its little wings " working for two." In spring both male and female acquire a white face, which gives them a masked appearance, and the great, gaudily colored beak reminds one of Mr. Punch and his big red nose. The beak, a remarkable aiipendage, is much larger and showier in the breeding season than at any other time. There are eighteen horny plates, ingeni- ously formed and arranged, sixteen of which fall off after the breeding season, much reducing the dimensions of the basal part. The underlying plates are then brown in color. At the same time the white of the face with its plumes dis- appears, the entire head becomes blackish, and the bird remains merely a commonplace Puffin until the next breeding season. On the Farallons, off the California coast, where these Puffins nest on barren rocks, they deposit their eggs in holes or cavities among the rocks, but on the northern coast, where each rocky islet has a cap of some four feet of earth, they burrow into this at the top of the precipice overlooking the sea. Some of their tunnels ex- tend but a few inches. These are believed to be made by the young birds. Others delve deeply, and in an old colony a bank will be honeycombed in every direction. If one wishes to examine into their housekeeping, under these circum- stances he must fasten a rope to rock or tree, rig a " bo'sun's chair," and let himself over the clifif, excavating with his hands like a dog dig- ging out a woodchuck, the stream of dirt passing down the cliff until it reaches the sea far below. Even then he mav not easily succeed in finding the eggs or young in the interminable labyrinth of passages penetrating the earth. Where the tops of islands are hilly, the Puffins dig into the turf, where the land slopes at an angle of about 45°, and often they go in to a depth of three or four feet. The single egg, which apjjcars white, is in reality spotted inside the shell structure, as may be seen by holding it up to a very strong light. The young one is a real Puffin, as it is covered with down like a powder putf, but as it sits at the mouth of the burrow it looks, at a distance, like a little rat peeping out of its hole. There has been much speculation regarding the utility of the bill of the Puffin, and it has been suggested that it is used to crush moUusks, but this does not seem to be the case, at least during the breeding season, as small fish appear to form its principal food. Ajiparently it does not use its bill, but rather its feet, in digging, though this may be an error, and possibly both are used ; but certainly the beak is an excellent weapon of defense as all who have attempted to dig out Puffins will testify. Nature has put the most powerful weapon of the mother bird where it will have most effect. As she sits facing the entrance to her burrow she can deliver the more effective blows in defense of her nest and young because of the great size and crushing strength of her weapon, backed as it is by her hard head and sturdy neck. Puffins breed on islands occupied also by Gulls, (iuillemots, Murres, Cormorants, and other birds. After the breeding season they go to sea where they remain all winter. Their habits and roost- ing places at this season are practically unknown. The natives of the coasts and islands of the north Pacific catch Puffins in nets, using their bodies for food and their skins for clothing. The skins are tough and are sewn together with the feathered side in, to make coats or " parkas," as they are called. Thus the Puffins contribute to tlic comfort and welfare of these simple, primi- tive people. Edward Howe Forbush. PUFFIN Fratercula arctica arctica {Liinunis) A. O. U. Number 13 See Color Plate 3 Other Names. — Common Puffin ; Puffin Auk ; Labra- dor Auk; Sea Parrot; Pope; Bottle-nose; Tammy Norie ; Coulterner ; Tinker. General Description. — Length, 13 inches. Color above, black ; below, white ; bill jwry deep and ridged. Description. — Adults in Summer: Crown, grayish- black, separated by a narrow ashy collar from dark color of upper parts ; sides of head with chin and throat, ashy; nearly white between eyes and bill, with a dark dusky patch on side of throat; upper parts, Court. ,, ■" f.. N.- Plate 3 BLACK GUILLEMOT Crpp/iua uryllf (Liiiiuif'u-t WINTER SUMMER BRUNNICH'S MURRE Vria lomvui ininvta (Liiimieus SUMMER WINTER All 1 n:it, .size RAZOR-BILLED AUK Aim tiirila l.imiiiL'U.-? PUFFIN Frattrciila arctira nritira (Linnaoiis* SUMMER DOVEKIE .U/c alfr ( I.innaousi SUMMER WINTER AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 19 glossy blue-black continuous with a broad collar around neck in front, not reaching bill ; under parts from neck, pure white; sides, dusky; basr oj bill and first ridge, dull ycllowisli, next space, arayish-hlue : rest of hill. Z'erinilion. yellozv helon': rosette of ninuth. orange; feet, vermilion; iris, pale bluish-white; conical shaped projections above and behind eye, grayish-blue; eye- lids, vermilion. Adults in Winter: Face, dusky; no eye-ring or appendages on eyelid; rosette of mouth. shrunken; feet, orange: most of horny appendages on bill have been shed, leaving it small and pale. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: \ burrow in the groimd 1 to 4 feet in length. Ec.cis : i. white or brownish- white, plain or marked with faint spots, dots, or scratches of lavender; laid ot the end of burrow on a thin lining of grass. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of north .Atlantic; breeds in North .America from Ungava south to the Ray of Fundy and Maine; winters south to Massa- chusetts; rarely to Long Island, and Delaware Ray. Drawing by R. I. Brasher PUFFIN (; nat. size) The Sea Parrot of the north Atlantic ■■ Whether at rest or on the wing, the I'ullin is a curious looking creature," says John Maclair Boraston, the EngHsh ornithologist. "At rest they stand rank above rank on the topmost rocky ledges facing the sea, their black backs, collars, and crowns, white faces and underparts, com- bining with their erect attitude and disiiosition, incline to give them something of military uni- formity and rcgularit}-. Rut when one noted the great tri-colored beak, the apparenth- spectacled eyes, and remarked the mild surprise with which the birds regarded our intrusion, one could not resist the idea that there was something ludi- crously artificial in the make-up of the PuHin; for surely there never w^as a bird less bird-like in its appearance than the Puffin at rest. They were tame enough to allow us to approach ahiiost within striking distance, liad we been disposed to strike anything so mild-mannered as a Puffin. When the bird is on the wing, the flight is rapid, but labored, the wings beating violently, and as the bird flies, especially if returning to its bur- row with fish, it utters a peculiar sound — a deep- throated, mirthless laughter, as it were, which may be imitated by l;iughing in the throat with the lips closed. " It is a matter of speculation how the Puffin, which catches fish by diving, contrives to retain the first fish in its bill while it captures a second or a third. Possibly the tongue is used to hold it to the roof of the moutli, while the under man- ihlilc is lowered to make the later captures." I Birds by Laud and Sea. ) Much of the grotcsciueness of this bird's aj)- pearance is due to its uncouth beak, w'hich is very large, flattened laterally, banded with red, 20 BIRDS OF AMERICA blue, and yellow, and embossed with horny ex- crescences. These growths appear only in the mating season, and are sloughed ofif when that period is at an end, which means, as one observer puts it, that " the Puffin displays his wedding garments on his beak.'' Puffins are not likely to be seen near land after the breeding season is over. They are skillful swimmers and expert divers : in their diving they often descend to a great depth, and they are exceedingly quick and sure in their motions under the surface. At their breeding places the birds are likely to appear with remarkable punctuality, and they disappear with their young with corresponding regularity. In fact this departure is methodical to the extent that young birds which have not got the full use of their wings are left behind when the time for migrating arrives. It seems probable that the birds remain mated for life. On land the bird places the whole length of the foot and heel on the ground and proceeds with a waddling stride. Robbing a Puffin's nest is dangerous business when either of the birds is at home, for they fight desperately and can inflict ugly wounds with their powerful mandibles and sharp inner nails. The birds show strong affection for one another. If one is shot and falls in the water, others are likely to alight near it, swim around it, push it with their bills, and display in many ways their distress. From old records we learn that in various parts of the Puffin's European range it was the custom to salt down large quantities of the young birds, to be eaten especially in Lent. To be sure the bird wasn't actually fish, but it tasted enough like fish to satisfy adaptable consciences among the devout. CASSIN'S AUKLET Ptychoramphus aleuticus (Pallas) A. O. U. Number 1 6 Other Name. — Sea Quail. General Description. — Length, 9' J inches. Color above, blackish; below, whitish; bill, shorter than head, wider than broad at base, its upper outline nearly straight. Color. — L't'pcr parts, blackish-plumbeous: head, wings and tail, nearly black; a grayish shade extending around head, neck, fore-breast, and along sides of body, fading to white on abdomen ; bill, black, yellowish at base; feet, bluish in front, blackish behind and on webs; iris, white; a touch of white on lower eyelid. Nest and Eggs. — The single egg, chalky-white or faintly tinged with green or blue, unmarked, is de- posited in a burrow in the ground or in a crevice in rocks on an island or coast adjacent to the sea. Distribution. — Pacific coast of North America from Aleutian Islands to latitude 27° in Lower California; breeds locally throughout its range. While the Cassin Auklet has been found living on some of the rocky islands from the Aleutians to Lower California, yet I have never found one of the birds nesting on the rocks off the Oregon coast. During the summer of 1903, Mr. Herman T. Bohlman and I camped for five days and nights on Three Arch Rocks which contain the greatest colonies of sea birds off the ( )regon coast. Again in 1914, we lived for four days and nights on these rocks and climbed from top to bottom studying the various birds that live there. We have yet to see our first Auklet about Three Arch Rocks. This has led me to believe that it is rather uncertain as to just where the bird may be fotmd. Mr. L. M. Loomis found the birds nesting on the Farallons and Mr. Wil- liam L. Dawson found them nesting on some of the rocks off the Washington coast. Because of its plump shape and size, it has been called a " Sea Quail." In his study of Cassin's Auklet on one of the islands off the Washington coast, Mr. William L. Dawson speaks of spending the night on the slope of the island where the Auklets had their nests. The birds burrow in under the soil, like the Petrels and Puffins, and are largely nocturnal in their nesting habits. The old birds come in at night to change places in the burrows. The Auklet chorus of birds in the burrows, he says, reminds one of a frog pond in full cry. Although the Auklets are quiet in daytime, yet the tumult in- creases as the night progresses. William L. Finley. AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 21 CRESTED AUKLET iEthia cristatella (Pallas) A (I. r. Number iS Other Names. — Snub-nosed Auklet. or Auk : Dusky Auklet : Crested Stariki ; Sea Quail ; Kanooska. General Description. — Length, 9 inches. Color above, brownish-black: below, brownish-gray. Bill, shorter than head, with knob at base: a beautiful crest of from 12 to 20 slender black plumes springing from forehead, recurved gracefully over bill, about two inches long; a slender series of white filaments behind each eye. drooping downward and backward. Color. — Adults: Brownisli-black above, brownish- gray below : no white anywliere : bill, coral or orange, horn color at tip; feet, bluish-black; iris, white. Young: Lacking bill plates, crests, and white filaments on side of head; a white spot below eye; iris, brown; otherwise as in adults. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of Bering Sea and north Pacific, from Bering Strait south to Kodiak Island and Japan. This is essentially a sea-bird of the far North, its normal habitat being the north Pacific Ocean and the islands of Bering Sea. In Yukon Harbor they have been seen in myriads. Their ajipear- ance there is thus described by Dr. Charles Town- send in a leaflet prepared for the National .Asso- ciation of Audubon Societies: " The surface of the water was covered with them, and the air was filled with them. Large, compact flocks launched themselves into the air from the lofty cliffs, and careened toward the vessel with great speed and whirring of wings. Twilight did not come until after 9 o'clock, and during the long evening the birds were amazingly active. Flocks of them continued to come in rapid succession from the cliffs, many passing close to the ship at high speed and s\\ inging about the harbor. After the anchor was drop[>ed near the cliffs, a loud blast of the whistle made the .Auklets still more abundant. " These birds appeared to be nesting chietly in crevices in the cliffs, although they Cduld be heard under the boulders near the beaches. To discover the nesting localities is easy. One has but to walk along the great ridges of vulcanic stones thrown up by the sea. The stones are rounded and sea-worn like pebbles, but they are gigantic pebbles and cannot readily be moved. The Auklets go far down among them, ])erhaps three or four feet, and can be he;ir(l chattering there during any part of the nesting-season. We found that a considerable part of the food of this and (ither kinfls of .\uklets consisted of amiihipod crustaceans, or beach-fleas, as they are called, when found under bits of seaweed along the shore. The native .\leuts eat .\uklets, just as they do most other kinds of sea-birds and caji- ture them with nets that are like a large dip-net w ith a long handle. 1 Drawing by R. I. Br.i5!u-r CRESTED AUKLET 1 ; nat. size) A strangely ornamented bird " We need not concern mn-sel\es. 1 think, about the preservation of the .\ukk-ts. They dwell .among the high cliffs :nul the botdder-strewn beaches of a thuusand uninh;ibited islands, and know how to slow aw.iy their eggs so s.afcly that neither natives nor bhu- fo.xes can get them easily." 22 BIRDS OF AMERICA LEAST AUKLET ^thia pusilla (Palliu) A. O, U. Number 20 Other Names. — Alinute Auklet ; Knob-nosed Auklet ; Knoll-billed Auklet; Choochkie. General Description. — Length. 65^ inches. Color above, black ; below, white ; bill, shorter than head, with knob at base ; no crest. Description. — Adults in Summer: Front, top, and sides of head, sprinkled with white delicate feathers ; a series of exceedingly fine hair-like feathers from back of eye down back of head and nape; some white on shoulders and on tips of some secondaries ; otherwise entire upper parts, glossy-black ; throat and under parts, white clouded with dusky, usually more thickly across breast ; bill, red, darker above at base ; legs, dusky ; iris, white. Adults in Winter; Bristles of head, fewer and less developed; white of under parts, more exten- sive, reaching almost around neck; bill, brownish. Nest and Eggs. — The single egg, chalky-white or faintly tinged with greenish or bluish, unmarked, is deposited in a burrow in the ground or in a crevice among rocks on an island or on a coast adjacent to the sea. Distribution. — Coast and islands of the north Pacific ; breeds from Bering Strait south to Aleutian Islands; winters from Aleutian and Commander islands south to Washington on the American side and to Japan on the .-Xsiatir. The Least Auklet is one of the commonest of the water fowl in Bering;- Sea. It congregates in countless thousands on the rocks in Bering Strait, making them look like great beehives. In the spring they are very playful, especially while they are in the water, where they chase each other in great apparent good nature, meanwhile keeping up an incessant but subdued chattering. Like the other Auklets, they build no nest, but lay a single egg deep in the crevice of a clilT. or among the rocks well below the surface, or in a burrow in the ground. "A walk over their breeding grounds at this season," wrote Doctor Baird, " is exceedingly interesting and amusing, as the noise of hundreds of these little birds directly under foot gives rise to an endless variation of sound as it comes up from the stony holes and caverns below, while the birds come and go, in and out, with bewilder- ing rapidity, comically blinking and fluttering. The male birds, and many of the females, reg- ularly leave the breeding grounds in the morning, and go off to sea, where they feed on small water shrimps and sea fleas, returning to their nests and sitting partners in the evening." {North American Birds.) ANCIENT MURRELET Synthliboramphus antiquus (Giiiclin) A. O. U. Xumber 21 Other Names. — Gray-headed Murrelet; Black- throated Murrelet ; Black-throated Guillemot; Old Man. General Description. — Length, io',< inches. Color above, dark slate; below, white; bill, small and short, zvith no horny growth at base. Color. — Adults in Summer: Head, black, sooty on chin and throat ; a conspicuous white stripe over each eye to nape, spreading on sides and back of neck into a series of sharp white streaks; a trace of white on each eyelid ; upper parts, dark slate, blackening on tail ; under parts, white; sides of body, velvety-black, the black feathers lengthening behind and overlaying the white flanks, extending upward in front of wings, meet- ing that of nape and there mixing with the white streaks; bill, yellowish-white, black on ridge and base; fe»t. yellowish, webs, black ; iris, dark brown. Adults IN Winter: Upper parts, darker, the slate obscured by dusky, especially on wing, tail-coverts, and rump ; fore- head, crown, and nape, sooty-black without white streaks ; eyelids, sometimes largely white ; no black on throat, but dusky mottling at base of bill; white of under parts extending nearly to eyes and far around on sides of nape. Nest and Eggs. — The single egg. huff with markings of grayish-lavender and light brown, is deposited in holes or burrows in banks on the coast or on a sea island. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of the North Pacific ; breeds from Aleutian Islands to Near Islands and from Kamchatka to Commander Islands; winters from the -Meutians south to San Diego, California, and to Japan ; accidental in Wisconsin. AUKS, AIURRES, AND PUFFINS 23 The Ancient Murrelet is another of the divin.ef birds which fairly swarm on many of islands along the southern coast of Alaska. It ranges as far south as California in summer, and tlicn is common on the Commander Islands in the Bering Sea, where the nati\es call it the " Old Alan." because of the curious feather arrangement on the sides and back of the head. These feathers are dropped as winter comes on, so that the sig- nificance of the popular name may not be ap- parent when the bird visits its southern feeding grounds. The Ancient Alurrelct is an expert diver, and swims very rapidly under water, wheix' it pur- sues fish with such energy as sometimes actually to drive them to the surface. BLACK GUILLEMOT Cepphus grylle ( Liiuuciis) A. O, U. Xumhcr 27 See C^oior Plate j Guillemot : Sea Greenland Dove ; Other Names. — White-winged Pigeon : Tysty ; Gcylle ; Spotted White Guillemot ; Scapular Guillemot. General Description.— Length, 13 inches. Prevail- ing color, in summer, sooty-hlack ; in winter, black and white; bill, slender and straight, witli no horny gro-a-th at base. Color. — Sooty-black ; wings and tail, pure black ; wlnys tvith a large tchitc mirror on both surfaces: bill, black ; mouth and feet, carmine, vermilion, or coral- red ; iris, brown. This perfect dress is worn only two months. In August, wings and tail become gray, the white mirror is mixed with brown, head, neck all around, rump, and under parts, marbled with black and white, the bird looking as if dusted over with flour; back, black, the feathers white-edged; completion of the molt gives the following winter plumage: head and neck all around, rump, and under parts, pure white ; back, hindneck. and head varied with black and white ; wings and tail, black, the white mirror perfect. Nest and Eggs.— Eggs : Deposited on the bare sur- face of the rock, in nooks and crannies of rocky islands on coast ; 2 or 3, white or greenish-white, irregularly spotted and blotched with dusky and lavender shell markings. Distribution. — Coasts of eastern North America and northwestern Europe, breeding from southern Green- land and Ungava to Maine ; winters from Cumberland Sound south to Cape Cod; rarely to Long Island. N. Y., and Xew lersev. Siimmi r Drawing by R. I. Brasher BLACK GUILLEMOT (1 nat. size) Their black bodies, white-lined wings, and red legs make a color scheme well worth seeing 24 BIRDS OF AMERICA Along the coast of Maine the numerous rocky islands extending in an irregular line out to sea afford favorite nesting places for numerous sea- fowl, among which the Black Guillemot, or " Sea Pigeon," is by no means rare. Farther north they are more numerous and breed in numbers on Grand Manan Island, New Brunswick, at various places in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and along the Labrador coast. Li approaching their nesting islands one will observe what appear to be short, black Ducks swimming ahead of the boat, usually several together. One by one they will suddenly disappear, as with surprising swift- ness they dive beneath the surface. Under water they are much at home, and by the use of wings, as well as legs, they take their submarine flight to a considerable distance before reappearing. Usually one does not see them again until they rise to the surface well beyond gunshot range. On taking wing they rise readily from the water. Their progress is swift, strong, and usually directed in a straight line. In flight they rarely rise more than a few feet above the water. The Black riuillemot's nest is placed in the cleft of rocks well above the reach of high tides. While clambering over the great jumble of giant bowlders, that reach from the water to the higher ground on some of the Maine islands, I have often come upon these birds brooding their eggs or young. The first knowledge of their pres- ence would be when one would spring out from among the bowlders and go dashing away to the sea. Their black bodies and white-lined wings, combined with the red of the dangling, wide- spraddled legs, made a color scheme well worth seeing. Hidden generally well from view is the nest, and often it would take a steam derrick to reach it. Not the slightest effort at nest building is attempted. The two handsomely spotted eggs are deposited on the bare rocky floor of the little cave. The young are covered with down, literally as black as the " ace of spades." The birds feed on various crustaceans and shell-fisli which are secured by diving. Many sea-birds of the North journey to south- ern waters to spend the winter, but the Sea Pigecjn apparently sees no need for exerting it- self to such an extent. In fact it can hardly be said to migrate at all, for it is rarely found south of Cape Cod, scarcely two hundred miles beyond its simthernmost nesting grounds. At all times they are coast-wise birds, seldom being seen out of sight of land, and never under any circum- stances going inland. T. Gilbert Pearson. PIGEON GUILLEMOT Cepphus columba Pallas A. O. U. Xumber 2g Other Name. — Sea Pigeon. General Description. — Length. 13 inches. Prevail- ing color, in summer, sooty-black; in winter, black and white; bill, slender and straight, zvilli no horiiy grotvth at base. Plumage. — Jl'liilc mirror of upper surface split by an oblique dark line caused by extension of dark bases of greater coverts increasing from within outward until the outside ones are scarcely tipped with white; plumage and changes otherwise as in Black Guillemot. Nest and Eggs. — Similar to those of the Black Guillemot. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of the Arctic Ocean, Bering Sea and Cape Lisburne, and both coasts of the north Pacific from Bering Strait south to Santa Catalina Island, California, and to northern Japan. Mr. Dawson says that the Pigeon Guillemot is " unquestionably the most characteristic water- bird of the Puget Sound region," and explains its sharing the popular name " Sea Pigeon " with the Bonaparte Gull as follows : " The Gulls are dove-like in posture (at least a-wing). and in their manner of flocking : while the Guillemot owes its name both to its plumpness and to its very unsophisticated, not to say stupid, appear- ance." (Birds of Washington. ) E. W. Nelson found this bird " the most abun- dant of the small Guillemots throughout the North, from Aleutian Islands to those of Wran- gel and Herald, where we found it breeding abundantly during our visit there on the Corivin.'' He notes that the birds are very con- spicuous by reason of their white wing patches and bright red' legs. When perched on the rocks they sciuat like Ducks, and when swimming they often paddle along with their heads lielow the surface. For breeding operations a few pairs may take AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS possession of a group of small rocks, or a col(jny of several hundred may share cliffs with Cor- morants. Tufted Puffins, and Glaucous Gulls. Mr. Finley observes (ms.) that off the Oregon coast these Guillemots nest in isolated places and not in colonies. " They like a crevice or a hole in the face of a clift' for a nest site." On land they have an awkward shanililing gait, but in the water they are entirely at ease, and are swift swimmers and expert divers. MURRE Uria troille troille {Li)uurus) A. O. U. Number 30 Other Names. — Foolish Guillemot; Guillem, or Gvvilvm ; Tinker; Tinkershire ; Kiddavv ; Skidtlaw ; Marrock ; Willock ; Scuttock ; Scout ; Strany ; Lavy ; Frowl. General Description. — Length. 17 inches. Color above, brown ; below, white. Bill, narrow and slender. Color. — Adults in Summer: Head and neck all around, rich ntaroon-brois.ni shading on upper parts into dark slaty-brown ; some feathers of back and rump with grayish-brown edges ; secondaries, narrowly tipped with white; under parts, pure white; sides and flanks with dusky markings; bill, black, feet, dusky; iris, brown. Adults in Wintes: White of under parts. reaching bill, on sides of head to level of gape, extend- ing further around on sides of neck, leaving only a narrow line of dark color; the two colors shading with- out sharp line of demarcation. Nest and Eggs. — A single egg. remarkably variable in coloration, is laid on the rock of cliffs, without any attempt at nest buildin,g ; it varies from white to dark green, spotted, blotched, and scratched with black, brown, and lilac over the entire surface. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of North .Atlantic ; breeds in North America from southern Greenland and southern Ungava south to Newfoundland and Mag- dalen Islands; winters south to Maine. The comnKin Alurre's natural habitat is the northern Atlantic Ocean, and various islands therein, but in winter it wanders southward as far as New England, and possibly to New York, though the records of its appearances there seem not to be entirely reliable. On the water this bird looks much like a Duck, though its neck is shorter and its bill more pointed than i'^ charac- MURRE (i nat. sizel Drawing by R. I. BrasliL-r 26 BIRDS OF AMERICA teristic in that family. In their nesting places on ledges of rocky islets they sometimes gather in such numbers as to present a seemingly almost solid mass of birds, while the eggs are found lying so close together that it is actually diffi- cult to walk without treading upon them. All the Murres are oceanic birds, only visiting the rocks during the breeding season, and found inland only when driven there by storms. Their food consists of fish and various crustaceans ; this particular species is especially partial to the fry of herrings and pilchards, which are cajitured at night in the open sea. Doctor Chapman remarks that " long-contin- ued studies of Murres on the coast of Yorkshire warrant the belief that, although the eggs of no two Murres (or Guillemot as it is termed in England) are alike, those of the same individ- ual more or less closely agree, and that the same bird lays year after year on the same ledge. Murres perch on the entire foot or tarsus, and when undisturbed usually turn their backs to the sea and hold their eggs between their legs with its point outward. W'hen alarmed they face about, bob and bow and utter their low-voiced mtirre." CALIFORNIA MURRE Uria troille californica (H. Bryant) \. O. V. Number 30a Other Names. — California Guillemot: California Egg-bird ; Farallon Kind. General Description. — Similar to the common Mnrre. but averaging about an inch longer. Nest and Eggs. — Like those of common Murre. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of the north Pacific : breeds from Norton Sound and Pribilof Islands south to the Farallons. California ; winters from the Aleutian Islands south to Santa Monica. California. The California Murre is the most abundant sea-bird on the ofif-shore rocks of the Pacific from Alrivkn to the Fnrallons Tt i- readily Photo by W. L. Finley Courtesy of Nat. Asso. Aud. boc. AN INCUBATING CALIFORNIA MURRE During incubation the single egg is held between the legs with its point outward. Photo taken on island off the coast of Oregon recognized by its snow-white breast and sooty- brown back. Its legs are placed clear at the end of its body, so it does a good deal of its sitting standing up. Its attempt to walk is a very awk- ward performance resembling a boy in a sack race. But in water the bird is very expert. It uses its feet as propellers and its wings as oars, flashing under water with such swiftness that it can overtake and capture a fish. The Murre is a creature of the crowd. To see this bird in great colonies and to watch its home life, one gets the idea that a Murre would die of lonesomeness if isolated. They huddle to- gether in such great numbers on the narrow sea ledges that they occupy every available standing place. There is not the least sign of a nest. The female lays a single egg on the bare rock. One egg is all that can be attended to under the cir- cumstances. One might wonder why the birds persist in crowding so close together. Neighbors always seem to be quarreling and sparring with their sharp bills. They rarely hit each other, because they are experts at dodging. The babble is continuous ; everyone talks at the same time. The peculiar top-shape of the Murre's egg prevents it from rolling. The jiractical value of this may be seen every day on the sloping ledges. We tried several experiments and the eggs were of such taper that not one rolled over the edge. \\'hen an egg starts down grade, it does not roll straight, but swings around like a top and comes to a standstill. The shells are also very tough and not easily broken. One day we lay stretched out on a ledge just. AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 27 above a big colony where we could watch the ordinary run of life and not disturb the birds in any wav. When a Alurre arrived from the fishing grounds, he alighted on the outer edge of the shelf. Then, like a man in a Fourth of July crowd, he looked for an opening in the dense front ranks. Seeing none, he boldly squeezed in, pushing and sho\ing to right and left. The neighbors resented such behavior and squawked and pecked at the new arrival. But he pressed on amid much opposition and com- plaint until he reached his mate. They changed places and he took up his vigil on the egg. The mate, upon leaving the colony, instead of taking flight from where she stood, went through the former proceeding, often knocking over several neighbors who protested vigorously, jabbing at the parting sister. Arriving at the edge of the ledge, she dropped off into space. The contin- uous going and coming made an interesting per- formance for the onlooker. William L. Finley. Photo by W. L. Finley and H. X. Bohlni.iii CALIFORNIA MURRES Off Oregon coast on Three Arch Rocks Reservation BRUNNICH'S MURRE Uria lomvia lomvia {Liinunis) A. O. U. Xumber 31 See Color Plate 3 Other Names. — Franks' Guillemot ; Tliick-hilled Giiilk'iiint : 'ihick-billed Murre ; Briinuich's Guillemot; Polar Guillemot; E^K-bird. General Description. — Length, i,S inches. Similar to common Murre in plumages and changes, but crown darker in contrast with throat and sides of neck; hilt, shorter and stimtcr with cutting edge of upper jaw flesh-colored. Nest and Eggs. — Indistinguishable from those of the Murre. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of north .-\tlantic ; breeds from southern Ellesniere Land, and northern Greeidand to Hudson Bay and Gulf of St. Lawrence: resident in Greenland and Hudson Bay; south rarely in winter from Maine to South Carolina, and in interior to northern Ohio, central Indiana and central Iowa. 28 BIRDS OF AMERICA Briinnich's Murre comes as near being like the Antarctic Penguins as any other North Amer- ican species. It is built primarily for swimming and diving, and is a poor walker, waddling awk- wardly in an upright position. Except as it may climb out of the cold water on a cake of ice, its only chance to exercise these poor gifts is during the short summer in the Far North on its breeding grounds. There the Murres, mingled with the other species, resort Photo by H. K. Job Courtesy of Hougnton Mutiin Co. BRDNNICH'S MURRE Presently it will lift its egg onto its feet and hold it there for incubation to precipitous shores or rocky islands, from the Gulf of St. Lawrence away up to northern Greenland. I have visited the colony on Great Bird Rock, Magdalen Islands. Here, in June, I found them standing in rows on the narrow ledges of the cliff, usually with back to the sea, each bird holding between its legs one large pear- shaped egg. These eggs have very hard shells, and are so shaped that they roll in a circle, which helps to prevent their falling off the cliff. They are colored a great variety of tints of green, blue, buff, whitish, and are so variously marked that it is impossible to find any two alike. Usually the Murres crowd upon these ledges as thickly as they can find room to stand or squat. From these ledges they throw themselves with confident abandon, and, with exceedingly rapid wing beats, circle out over the sea and back again to the rock. Otherwise they alight on the water with rather a heavy splash, and are apt to dive forthwith. They can be seen here and there swimming about, distinguishable from Ducks bv the fact that their posterior part floats rather high — reminding one of the ancient ships as de- scribed by Vergil, with " lofty sterns." Their hoarse baritone voice is almost human, and they are supposed to say murre. When I first heard them on the rocky ledges close at hand, I was involuntarily startled, so much did it sound to me like someone calling my boyhood nickname, "Herb, Herb!" Unless one can visit a breeding colony, about the only way to cultivate their acquaintance is to get offshore in winter, on the bleak, wind-swept ocean, not much further south than Nantucket shoals, or, better, the coast of Maine. Miles off Cape Cod in mid-winter, from fishing vessels I have seen them by hundreds. Flocks of them dotted the ocean in all directions, or moved in lines swiftly through the air, to plunge into the water and disappear like stones, presently to bob up many rods further off. Occasionally at the entrance of harbors, in bitter cold weather, I have seen them perched on some slanting pole or beacon, from which they would plunge directly into the water. Though oceanic in habit, this particular species seems to have a peculiar faculty, as has the Dovekie, for getting into trouble by wandering from its real element. After winter storms they are liable to be found far inland, sometimes stranded in a snow bank out in some field, or on the ice of a pond or stream, vainly seeking lo find water. In such cases they are emaciated and must perish, as they are tmable to rise on wing from any surface except water. When word comes of a queer unknown bird which stands upright on the ice or in the snow, it is a likely guess to call it a Briinnich's Murre. Herbert K. Job. AUKS, MURRES, AND PUFFINS 29 RAZOR-BILLED AUK Alca torda LiiiiKnis A. O. U. Xumber 3J Other Names. — Razor-bill ; Tinker. General Description. — Length. 18 inches. Color above, black; below, white. Bill, flatly compressed; tail, pointed. Color. — Adults in Summer: Head and neck all around, and upper parts, black, more brownish on former, a slight greenish-gloss on latter; tips of second- aries and entire under parts from neck, white ; a sunken line of white from eye alongside of forehead to bill; bill, black, crossed by a white line; feet, dusky; iris, brown. Adults in Winter: White extending to bill, invading sides of head to level of eyes and neck ; no ."^ce (.'nlor Piatt- ? white line from bill to eye; color of upper parts, duller. Nest and Eggs. — Usually one egg, sometimes two. is laid on the bare rock of cliffs or islands along the coast, very variable in shape and size of markings; white or bluish, spotted and blotched with sepia or black, these spots sometimes wreathed in a circle around the large end ; in others diffused over entire surface. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of the north .\tlantic ; breeds on American side from southern Greenland to Newfoundland and New Brunswick; winters from New Brunswick and Ontario to Long Island and rarelv to North Carolina. The Razor-billed Auk presents a strikint,' and intere.sting apjiearance in the water, which it rides as buoyantly as a cork. Like all of its kind, it is exceedingly quick and clever at diving, a method of escape which it always adopts in pref- erence to flight, when it can. It slips under the surface with hardly any perceptible or audible splash, and it is quite impossible to tell where it will reappear. When fairly submerged the bird swims — using both wings and feet — with as- tonishing speed and often descends to a consid- erable depth. It feeds largely upnn fish and various small marine creatures, and takes vir- tually all of its food from the sea. When it chooses to take to its wings, it can fly with much rapidity. In summer it is decidedly gregarious and the flocks often are seen far from land. If then overtaken by heavy gales, large numbers of the birds are drowned. As the breeding season approaches, the birds abandon temporarily their nomad sea life and gather in large flocks at established breeding places, preferably on cliffs overlooking the ocean, and containing an abundance of niches and re- cesses, where the single egg is laid, no nest being made. The incubating bird is very loath to lea\c the egg, and often when so engaged may be taken in the hand. There are many evidences that the birds mate for life. Drawing by R. I. Br.-isliLT RAZOR-BILLED AUK ij nat. size) It rides the ocean as buoyantly as a cork GREAT AUK Plautus impennis {Limuvu A. O. U. Xumber ,33 Other Names. — Garefowl; Penguin; Wobble. General Description. — Length, 30 inches. Color above, black; below, white. Color. — Adults: Hood and entire upper parts including wings, black; ends of secondaries, white forming a traverse band ; under parts, white extending to a point on throat ; a white oval spot between bill and eye ; bill, black with lighter grooves ; feet, black ; iris, brown. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: Site probably similar to that of the Razor-billed .^uk. Ecr, : i, white or bluish- white, spotted and blotched with shades of umber- brown and sepia. Distribution. — Formerly inhabited coasts and islands of the north .Atlantic from near the .Arctic Circle south to Massachusetts and Ireland, and probably south casu- ally to South Carolina and Florida and the Bay of Biscay ; now extinct. 30 BIRDS OF AMERICA The Great Auk was the most powerful and swiftest diving and swimjning bird in North America. It had to be, as it could not fly. In order to survive it must be fast enough not only to pursue and overtake the swift-swimming fish in their native element, but also active enough to escape sharks and other predatory fish that otherwise might have exterminated it. Also it was obliged to follow the smaller migratory fish southward in winter and northward in spring. It has been pictured often among the icebergs, but it was not a bird of the Arctic regions and was not found within the Arctic Qrcle. It is believed to have inhabited southern Greenland, but that was centuries ago when the climate of Greenland probably was warmer than it is now. In primitive times, when man was a savage, the Auk was safe upon its island home in the raging sea, which men in their frail canoes visited rarely and in small numbers ; but civilized man, coming in large companies in ships that sailed the seven seas, armed with firearms, brought extermina- tion to all flightless birds which came under his notice, and so the Great Auk was one of the first of the North American birds to become extinct in the nineteenth century, the century that will always be noted for its great destruction of birds and mammals at the hand of man. The Great Auk had been known in Europe for centuries when it was first discovered in North America. This was in 1497 or 1498, when adventurous French fishermen began fishing on the banks of Newfoundland. The birds were taken there in such enormous numbers that it was unnecessary to provision the vessels, as the fleet could secure all the fresh meat and eggs needed by visiting the bird islands. Jacques Cartier, on his first voyage to Newfoundland in 1534, visited an " Island of Birds" which, from the course and distance sailed from Buena Vista, must have been what is now known as Funk Island, the last breeding place of the Great Auk in America, where the crews filled two boats with the birds in "less than half an hour'" and every ship salted down five or six barrelfuls. He also found the Great Auk on the ^Magdalen Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The bird became known among the French fishermen as the Pingonin (Penguin). There were at least three Penguin islands about Newfoundland and another near the tip of the peninsula of Nova Scotia, while numerous birds apparently sum- mered at the head of Buzzards Bay and about Cape Cod. The Auk migrated from Labrador to Florida. It was common at Nahant, Alass., and about the islands in Massachusetts Bay in the early years of the nineteenth century and was taken now and then near Plymouth, but had disap- peared at that time from the upper end of Buz- zards Bay. When Audubon visited Labrador in 1832, he was told that fishermen still took great numbers from an island off the coast of New- foundland, but, from all accounts, it seems prob- able that the bird was extirpated on the coasts of North America before 1840. Apparently the Great Auk was destroyed in America before it was extirpated in Europe, where the last recorded specimen was taken, off Iceland, in 1844. Its destruction was accomplished first by the demand for the eggs and flesh for victualing fishermen and settlers, next by the demand for the feathers, and last by unrestricted shooting. When the supply of eider-down and feathers for feather beds and coverlets gave out, about 1760, because of the destruction of the breeding fowl along the coast of Labrador, some of the feather hunters turned to the Penguin islands off the coast of Newfoundland. Cartwright said ( 1775) that several crews of men lived all summer on Funk Island, killing the birds for their feathers ; that the destruction was incredible ; and that this was the only island that was left for them to breed upon. Nevertheless the species continued more or less numerous about the shores of New- foundland until about 1823 and then gradually disappeared before continuous persecution. Dr. F. A. Lucas, who visited Funk Island in 1878, found such enormous numbers of the bones of this species that he concluded that " millions '' must have died there. Today there are about eighty mounted specimens in existence and not many over 70 eggs preserved in museums and collections. This Auk was readily alarmed by a noise, as its hearing was very keen, but it was not wary if approached silently. When on land it stood upright or rested on its breast, and its locomotion was slow and difficult, so that it might be easily overtaken and killed with a club. In the water, however, it was so swift that a boat propelled by six oars could not overtake one. It is be- lieved to have fed mainly upon fish, but its habits never were studied and described, and, therefore, they are unknown. Edward Howe Forbush. AUKS, AIURRES, AND PUFFINS 31 DOVEKIE Alle alle ( LiiiiKciis) A. O. U. \umber ^14 Little Auk : Sea Dove : Alk- ; Koteli ; Other Names, Ice-hird, General Description. — Length S'.. inches. Color above, black: below, white: head and liill, formed like those of a Quail. Color. — Adults in Summer: Head, neck all around, and upper parts, glossy blue-black; sides of head, neck, and throat, shaded with sooty-brown ; three or four white streaks on shoulders; secondaries, tipped with white ; under parts, pure wdiite ; bill, black : feet, flesh-color in front, black liehind ancl on wclis ; iris, >(t' C'olor Plate 3 brown. Adults in Winter: White of under jiarts extendin.sr to bill, invading sides of head and neck and nearl.N meeting on nape; otherwise as in summer. Nest and Eggs. — .A single greenish-blue egg laid in crevices of rocky cliffs on islands or coasts near the sea. Distribution. — Coasts and islands of north .Atlantic; breeds from Kane Basin and Baffin Bay east to Franz Josef Land ; winters from southern Greenland south to Long Island ( X. Y.). and rarely to Delaware Bay and North Carolina : accidental near Melville Island, and in Wisconsin. Michigan. Ontario, and Bermuda. • The little Dovekies or " Sea Doves " breed along the coa.sts of Greenland and other sea islands of the Atlantic, north of latitude 6g°, and in winter come down the coast where less ice abounds and where, consequentl}', food is more easily secured. New Jersey is about the usual limit of this s|jecies' southern journey. They stay in small flocks in the open sea and feed by diving. A[>parently at this season the\- come on land but rarely. Cape Hatteras, ornithologically, is a \erv in- teresting place. Here the warm waters of the Gulf Stream meet and neutralize the last re- maining vestige of the cold bearing currents from the north. As the distribution of animal life is largely determined bv climatic conditions, the North Carolina coast affected bv these cur- rents becomes the meeting place of manv north- ward moving siiecies that naturally inhabit warmer regions, and southward moving species from the cold countries to the north. The ex- treme southern migration of the r)o\-ekie illus- trates this interesting fact. .V few miles nijrth of Cape Hatteras I found, one December some years ago, one of these little wanderers. It was sitting on the beach in a tired-out condition and made but feeble attemjjts to escape when I took it in my hands. Then I discovered the cause of its emaciated condition: one foot was missing. Doubtless it had been bitten of¥ by some fish. With its [)0wer of di\'ing in the ocean thus re- duced at least one-half, its chances for securing a livelihood were all but gone, and in the end the tide had cast it upon the shore. Within a few Injurs it died. des])ite the most energetic efforts to induce it to eat such food as was a\-ailable. The Eskimos kill many Sea Doves and use their feathered skins for making the liird-skin .shirts with which thev helj) ward ofif the biting frost of their country. The birds are taken in Vol. I — 4 nets which the natives wield over the face of the cliff where the birds crowd together to breed. " I have often thought," wrote Audubon, '' how easy it would be to catch these tiny wanderers Drawing by R. I Brasher DOVEKIE (5 nat. size) These small Sea Doves manifest very little apprehension of danger from the proximity of man of the ocean with nets thrown e.xpertly from the how of a boat, for they inanifest very little apjirehension of danger from the pro.ximity of one. insomuch th;it I ha\e seen several killed with the oars. Those which were caught alive and ])laced on the deck, would at first rest a few minutes with their bodies flat, then rise upright and run about briskly, or attempt to fly off, which they sometimes accomplished, when they hap- pened to go in a straight course the whole length of the ship so as to rise easily over the bulwarks. On effecting their esca[)e they would alight on ihc water and immediately disap|iear.'' T. GiLr.KKT ri-:.\us()N'. ORDER OF LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS Order Longipennes jIRDS of the order of Long-winged Swimmers are cosmopolitan in distribution and are generally seen on the wing over or near water. In the order are three families : Skuas and Jaegers, Gulls and Terns, and Skimmers. They resemble most nearly the Tube-nosed Swimmers of all the water birds, but the character of the nostrils plainly distinguishes them without reference to internal anatomy. These birds have the nostrils lateral and open. The wings are long and pointed. Usually the tail is long. The legs are comparatively free and project from near the center of the body ; the thighs are bare for a short distance ; the tarsi are covered with horny shields of varying sizes. The toes are four in number, but the hind one, which is elevated, is very small (sometimes rudimentary) ; the front toes are webbed. Their bills are strong and thick ; the Skuas, Jaegers, and Gulls have hooked, hawklike bills ; the Terns have sharply pointed ones ; and those of the Skimmers are bladelike. Although there is no sexual variation in coloration in the species included in this order, there are seasonal and age differences. Their voices are shrill or harsh. Fish is the main item of their diet. The eggs are few, usually numbering but three. The young are covered with down when hatched, but are helpless and the parents care for them in and out of the nest for some time. SKUAS AND JAEGERS Order Lougipciuics: family Stcrcorariida: 'HE Skuas and Jaegers are closely related to the Gulls and Terns; in fact they are Gulls with habits and structure modified sufficiently to justify their inclusion in a distinct family, the Stercorariidcc, while still remaining in the same order, the Long-winged vSwimmers. Not the least striking of these modifications is a well-developed thieving propensity, with the result that they are often and variously called " Robber Gulls," "Sea Hawks," "Teasers," and "Boat- swains." Generally they are aggressive and daring birds, graceful, skillful and powerful in flight, b}' reason of which they are able to overtake their weaker and more timid relatives and force them to disgorge their food, which the pur- suer catches in its fall. Because of these practices they are often spoken of as parasites, but the practice itself is essentially predatory rather than parasitic. The birds' bad habits are not confined to this aerial robbery, however, for certain species are known actually to eat young birds and eggs, and even small mammals. The Skuas and Jaegers have wings of only moderate length for this group, the primaries are unusually wide and are rounded at the ends. The tail is relatively very short, but is broad and nearly even, the middle pair of feathers being larger than the others in adults. The body is stocky and heavy and powerfully muscled. The claws are strong, sharp, and curved. There is general tendency toward a sooty blackish coloration of the upper parts in the older birds with a gilding of the head and hindneck and a whitening of the shafts of the white feathers toward their bases. The young are smaller than the adults and are- profusely streaked with rufous; several years are required to reach the color and dimensions of the adults. Plat e 4 POMAK-INC JAEi ,CN -■■ ■ ' LONG-TAILED JAEGER -S/t. ADULT IMMATURE i/Hi'i/ms (Teiiiniiii' i i lonuicauilus N'iL'illut tS. parasiticus DARK FHAb£ tNTERMEOtATE l^ira.'^itiriis (I. All i ii:it. t^ize SKUA Mtyalfstris skua (Hriinnich) .innafu> * PHASE SKUAS AND JAEGERS SKUA Megalestris skua { Bniiiiiicli ) A. n r. Xumlit-r ,55 See ( ol(.r I'l.ite 4 Other Names. — Sea Hawk; Sea 1 kn ; I'.oiiNie: Skua Gull. General Description. — Length, jj iiKlies. CoUir. Ijlackish-lirnwM. Plumage. — AnuLTs: iTlacktsli-l'ni-n'ii, varied nl'm'i- with clicsliiut and ■zchitish (each feather dark-colored with a spot of chestnut toward end, shading into whitish along shaft) ; on nape and across throat, reddish-yel- low with narrow white streak on each feather ; crown and sides of head, with little whitish; wings and tail, dusky, white for some distance from base — concealed on tail by long coverts, but showing on jirimaries as a conspicuous spot; bill, black with gray cere; teet, black; iris, brown. Another pluma.ge, not known to be charac- teristic of age or season, is iniiform sooty-blackish zcitli the 'iK'liitc -tciiiii s/^ols ?v;'v i'('".s-/'iV»ii».\-. Nest and Eggs, — Nest : A depression in the grass : lined with grass and moss. Eggs: j or j. olive or drab, irre.gularly marked and blotched with dark olive-brown and sepia. Distribution. — Coast and islands of the North Atlan- tic; breeds on Lady I'Vanklin Island (Hudson Strait), in Iceland, and on the Faroe and Shetland islands; winters on fishing banks off Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; rarely south to Long Island, N. V.; in Europe south to Gibraltar. The Skua is one of the larLjeist and strongest members of its rapacious genus, and is much given to robbing the smaller sea birds, in the manner of its relatives. It occasionally strays along the North American coasts as far south as the northern boundary of the United States. There are records of its having been taken at least three times ofi the coast of Massachusetts. A single mdividual was shot on the Niagara River in 1886. and another was killed in i8q6 by colliding with the lighthouse at Montauk Point. Long Island, N. Y. Little seems to have been set down concerning the habits of the bird, which, however, jn-obably do not differ essentially from those of the Jaeg- ers. It does not assemble in flocks. .Seldom are even two pairs seen together. It is famed for its courage and daring in attacking and teasing Gulls and forcing them to give up the fish they have caught. Indeed, its scientific name is an apt characterization — iiici/alcslris is from two Greek words which, translated, are " large |iirate craft." In flight it has a striking appearance. POMARINE JAEGER Stercorarius pomarinus ( Tciumhick) A. O. V. .\uiiil>c-r Ji. See Colo Sea Robber; inches. Gull Color Other Names. — Gull Hunter Chaser; Jaeger Gull. General Description. — Length, 24 above, brownish-lilack ; below, white. Description. — .'\dui.ts in Breeding Plumage: Crown brownish-black extending below eyes and on sides of lower hill ; back, wings, tail, upper and under tail- coverts, deep brownish-black; under parts from cliin and neck all around, pure white — the sharp feathers of back and neck, light yellow; bill, horn color shading to black; feet, black; iris, brown. Nearly Adclt: .^ row of brown .spots across breast; sides barred with white and brown. Intermediate Stai^e : Entire breast, brown mottled with white; upper tail-coverts and some wing-coverts, barred with white; feet, blotched with chrome yellow. In breeding and nearly adult plumage •late 4 the /ii'o iciilnil lail-fcathcrs project about jour incites and are tzeisled at riiiht aniiles to the slidjts: in the intermediate i)hmiage the central tail-feathers project only one inch and are not twisted ; these central feathers are rounded at the til'. VofXG oi- the Year: Whole liofly traversely barred with dull rufous; on head, neck, and under parts this color prevails, the bands very numerous, about same width as the dark color ; on flanks and under tail-coverts the bars are wider, paler and almost white; on back and win.g-coverts, brownish- black, nearly uniform, predominates; primaries and tail-feathers, dusky, darker at tii)s ; head and neck, mostly pale rufous with a dusky spot in front of eye; fejt, bright yellow. These plumages are evidently pro- gressive with a.gc and are indei)endent of sex and sea- son, and different from the following: Dark Phase: 34 BIRDS OF AMERICA Plumage, blackish-brown all over, shading into black on crown, lightening on abdomen; primaries, whitish at base; feet, blotched with yellow and dusky; middle tail-feathers |irojecting but half an inch. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: On the ground in northern marshes, of grass and moss. Eggs : 2 or 3, olive, pale greenish, or brownish, spotted with dark brown. Distribution. — Northern part of northern hemi- sphere; breeds from Melville Island and central Green- land south to northern Alaska, northern Mackenzie, and Baffin Land, and also on .\rctic islands of eastern hemisphere ; winters off Atlantic coast south to New Jersey; in fall migration common along the California coast: winters south to the Galapagos, Peru, Africa, and .Xustralia ; accidental in Nebraska ; occurs irregu- larlv on the Great Lakes. Aly first experience with that bold niaritinie robber, the Poniarine Jaeger, was on a day late in August, many years ago, when I crossed some Cape Cod sand-dunes and came in sight of the sea. Flocks of Terns and small Gulls were hovering over the water in all directions. Over them were big dark-colored birds with long tails On the fishing-banks out at sea, wherever the Shearwaters and Petrels gather, from August on through the autumn, I have usually found this Jaeger in attendance, ^^'ith them are apt to be about as many Parasitic Jaegers atid an occa- sional one of the Long-tailed species. The Jaegers are seen flying about, not close to the water like Young — Dark Phase Drawing by R. I. Brasher POMARINE JAEGER (i nat. size) A bold maritime robber coursing about with strong, swift flight. Now and then one of these would select for its victim a Tern which had just caught a fish, and give chase. No matter how the unfortunate one might dart and dodge, the Jaeger followed every move, atid by savage attacks finally compelled it to drop the fish. Then by a spectacular swoop the robber would seize the booty in mid-air. When no victims are available for a hold-uii. the Jaeger turns scavenger and picks uj) dead marine life like a true Gull, but its preference is for depredation. the other:^, but higher up, say fifty to seventy- five feet, as though to get a better view, to detect any weaker bird which makes a lucky strike. Though somewhat shyer than the rest, they are bold enough upon occasion, especially when eatables are being passed around. Sometimes I have brought theiu up quite close by making believe to throw something overboard. I have baited up numbers of them by throwing out fish livers, and made the most of the opportunity in securing photographs. At close range it was fasciimting to study the different individuals as SKUAS AND JAEGERS 35 they appeared, owing to their great variations in pkmiage, all the way from the sooty phase to that of the adult with white under parts. Jaegers are Aretic-breeding birds, not nesting in colonies, like the Ciulls and Terns, hut in scattered pairs. Such destructive l)irds \vould hardly make good colonizers. They are said to be great nest-robbers, and woe to the bird which leaves eggs or young exposed to these savages. 1 l:-:Rr.i;KT K. Job. H >»: b\ H. K. J., Courtesy of Houghton Mitflin Cn. POMARINE JAEGER In quest of a victim PARASITIC JAEGER Stercorarius parasiticus I Liiuitcns) A. O. l_'. Xuniher j; See (. olor I'l.ite 4 Other Names. — Skait-bird ; Boatswain; Marline- spike; Teaser; Dung Hunter; Man-o'-vvar ; Richard- son's Jaeger ; Black-toed Gull ; .'\rctic Hawk Gull. General Description. — Length. 20 inches. Color above, brownish-black; below, white. Two middle tail- fratlirrs, iiarrou' and pointed, as ~cctl as ctoni/alcd. Color. — .'\dults in Breedinc Plum.-vge: Crown and back of head, crested, the feathers sharp and stiff; crown and whole upper parts, slaty brownish-black, shading into black on wings and tail ; chin, tliroat, sides of head, neck all around, and under parts, pure white, the sharp feathers on back of neck, light yellow; under tail-coverts, dusky ; bill, horn color, darker at end ; feet. black: iris, brown. Xe.\ri.v .'\dui.t: Under parts, white but mottled everywhere with dusky patches, heaviest across breast, on sides, and under tail-coverts ; center line of throat and abdomen, nearly pure white; feet, witli small yellow blotches or not ; otherwise as in breeding plumage. D.\rk Ph.\,se: Kntire plumage, dusky, darker and more slate-colored above, li.ghter and i/rowner below; crown, black; back of head and neck, yellow; wings and tail, black: feet, black, Vofxt; of •rnr '\'k.\k: Entire plumage, barred with rufous and brownish-black; yellowish-rufous i)revails on head and neck with dark shaft line on each feather; these shaft lines enlarge until between shoulders they occupy the whole of each feather except a narrow rufous border; 0,1 breast rufous becomes almost white, with traverse bars of brown, this pattern continuin.g over the entire under parts; primaries, dusky, narrowly tipped with rufous. Nest and Eggs. — X'e.st: .-V depression in the ground near water, sjiarsely lined with grass and dead leaves, Kr,(;s : 2 or ,3, olive, greenish, gray, or brown, marked and blotched with shades of brown and pale lavender over entire surface. Distribution. — Xorthern part <r'f KlNtj-blLLtU »-iULL La tin rru.^ CIuuiumus fND or SECOND YEAR ADULT IN SUMMER IMMATURE All 1 rwit. size GULLS 39 if such sentiment prevailed elsewhere throughout the United States. However, within the last few years much progress has been made in protecting these most beautiful dwellers of coasts and marshes. IVORY GULL Pagophila alba { ii luiiu-ni.s) \. O. U. .Number 39 •'^ec (. olor I'late 6 Other Name. — Snow-white Gull. General Description. — Lengtli, icS inches. White. Color. — .\dults ; Entire plumage, l^urc zchilc; shaft of primaries straw yellow; bill, dull greenish, yellow at tip and along cutting edges ; feet, black ; iris, brown ; eyelids, red. Young : Front and sides of head, dusky- gray ; neck all around with irregular spotting of brown- ish-gray ; shoulders and wing-coverts with brownish- black spots, thicker on lesser coverts ; tips of primaries and tail-feathers with dusky spots. Nest and Eggs. — Nest: In niches of cliffs; con- structed of gras.^ and seaweed, and lined with moss and a few feathers. Eggs; j to 4, olive-buff, spotted with different shades of brown and gray. Distribution. — .\rctic seas; breeds from Melville Island and northern Baffin Land to northern Green- land and Arctic islands of eastern hemisphere; win- ters in the e.xtreme north, rarely south to British Colum- bia. Lake Ontario, and Long Island. N. Y. ; in Europe south to France. The first word uf the scieiitiiic iKinic of the Ivory Gull expresses its chief cliaracteristic, just as the second word — alba, the Latin for " white " — is descriptive of its plumage. Patjophila is from two Greels: words meaning " ice " and "loving." Hence this beatitiful snow-white (itill is a rare visitant to the temperate zone of this continent from its home in the Arctic seas. The only verified record of the appearance of the bird in New York seems to be that furnished by William Dutcher of one shot in Great South Baw L. I., near Sayville, in January, 1893. Another observer reports having seen a single member of the species near Alt. Sinai Harbor, in Suft'olk Countv, N. V. In summer it occurs frequently on the Arctic islands of the eastern hemisphere. ;ind in winter it r.anges soiUhward to France. rile greenish-vellow Iieak and tlie black legs are in striking contrast t(i its beiuUilul snovv-wiiite plumage. It differs from other ( lulls in the com- parative shortness of its beak, and slightly taper- ing tail. The Ivory Gull is a glutton whenever it can iibtain the flesh of seals or the bluliber of whales. It will watch a seal-hole in the ice. waiting for the seal, whose excrement it devours. KITTIWAKE Rissa tridactyla tridactyla ( Liinncus) .\. <» I'. .Xumber 40 Other Names. — Common Kittiwake; Kittiwakc Gull; I'lck-nic-up ; Coddy-Moddy ; Tarrock. General Description. — Length, i8 inches. Color, wliitc with pale grayish-blue mantle. I linii to<\ ahsnit or iiniiinciitary : tail, slightly notched. Color. — .Xdui.ts in Summer: Head and neck all around, under parts, and tail, pure white; mantle, pale grayish-blue; wing-coverts and secondaries similar, Stt- Cuior riate 6 latter white on tips : l^riiiiarirx. hlackislt-l'liie with white oblong spaces on inner webs, the second, third and fourth with white ti|)s; /(■(■/, hldckish: hill, light xcUoik' tinged with olive; iris, brown; eyelids, red. Adults in Winter: Back of head, nai)e. and sides of breast, shaded with color of back; a dusky patch behind eye and a small black crescent in front of eye; bill, dusky-olive: otherwise as in summer. \'oung : Eye-crescent and spot 40 BIRDS OF AMERICA behind eye as in winter adult plumage ; a broad bar across back of neck, lesser and middle wing-coverts, inner secondaries, and a terminal bar on tail, black ; first four primaries with outer webs, outer half of inner webs and ends for some distance, black ; the rest, pearly-white. Nest and Eggs. — Nest : On rocky ledges overlook- ing the water; made of grass and seaweed. Eggs: 2 or 3, sometimes 5, buff, brownisli-gray, or greenish- gray, irregularly spotted with shades of brown and lavender. Distribution. — Arctic regions; breeds from Wel- lington Channel and northern Greenland south to Gulf of St. Lawrence, and from Arctic islands of Europe and western Siberia to southern France; winters from Gulf of St. Lawrence south to New Jersey, and cas- ually to Virginia. Bermuda, and the Great Lakes; accidental in Missouri, Colorado, and Wyoming. The graceful and industrious little Kittiwake has several interesting and characteristic traits. It pursues its prey after the manner of the Terns, hovering over the water and plunging head fore- most into the sea, with all of the dash and vigor of a Kingfisher. These Gulls are often seen following right whales apparently to get the fragments of tish rejected or dropped by those monsters. Observers who have watched the birds doing this say that they act as if they knew when the whales must rise to breathe. The Kittiwake feeds mainly on fish, but will take almost any animal or vegetable refuse it can find. For drinking it prefers salt water to fresh, and it is often seen sleejnng peacefully, floating on the great rollers, with its head tucked under its wing — literally " rocked in the cradle of the deep." It is a great wanderer, and de- cidedly democratic in its disposition, for it is often found in the company of other Gulls, Terns, and various other sea-birds. It takes its vernacular name from a fancied resemblance between its cry and the syllables " kit-ti-wake." In its scientific name, Rissa is its Icelandic name, and t rid act via is from the (jreek, meaning " three-toed," and refers to an anatomical peculiarity of the species. The Pacific Kittiwake ( Rissa tridactyla polli- caris) is a geographical variation of the Common Kittiwake. The two differ hut very little. The former occurs off the coasts of the north Pacific, Bering Sea, and the adjacent Arctic Ocean, breeding from Cape Lisburne and Herald Island south to the Aleutian and Commander Islands, and wintering from the Aleutian Islands south to northern Lower California. Photograph by ti. K. Job Cuurtc-sy of Outing PubHshing Co. KITTIWAKE In its nest on a cliS GULLS 41 GLAUCOUS GULL Larus hyperboreus Guiincrus A.